History of the Summer Olympics

As an avid fan of the Olympics and history, it's quite surprising to me that I have yet to write a proper post regarding the history of this worldwide event. With the ongoing Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics now seems a fitting time to give a historic synopsis of the 125 year old tradition. Beginning in 1896 in Athens, this worldwide competition is held every four years. The best athletes in the world are welcomed to represent their nation and compete in their respective sport. 

The modern games of the Olympics are actually a homage to the ancient Greek games, which I will briefly touch upon. I will also give a brief summary with highlights of every modern Olympic games since it's inception. What's especially cool to see how the games have endured thru numerous historical events such as WWI, the rise of Nazi Germany, WWII, and the recent Covid pandemic. I will also have a separate post giving a recap of the ongoing Tokyo summer games. However first I want to share my personal experience following the Olympics.

My Personal Olympics Experience

I first came to understand this worldwide competition of sport at the 1992 Barcelona games. I was only 8 years old, however do have some positive memories watching the games at a hotel room with my family (not sure what city but most likely was one of my dad's music conventions). I then remember watching the 1996 Atlanta games at our house and was so inspired by the glorious opening ceremony. I remember watching the USA women's gymnastic team and being attracted to the very cute Dominique Moceanu. I also remember being very into the sprinting events since at the time I myself had become a very fast kid. I was inspired by the stars Carl Lewis and especially Michael Johnson. By the 2000 Sydney games, I was fully onboard for the Olympic games and watched it every night. At this point I was competing in track-and-field and about to start high school. I was once again very inspired by the worldwide cultural event and particularly the performances of Cathy Freeman and Michael Johnson in the 400m dash. 

During my high school time from 2000-2003 soccer was my sport of choice, however I still excelled at track-and-field in the spring time. My events were the high jump, the 100m dash, 200m dash, 4x100m relay, 400 meter dash, 4x400 relay, and later the 800m, and the 4x800 relay.  Michael Johnson was always my inspiration with his iconic golden spikes. The next Olympic games of Athens 2004 I was in college, and remember watching the games every night at my apartment with my friend Rupright. By the time the 2008 Beijing games came around I was living in Chicago and once again very inspired by the games. At this point Usain Bolt and Michael Phelps had become the shining superstars of the games. I remember being especially impressed by the opening ceremony of the Beijing Olympics and don't think it has been matched ever since. 

The 2012 London Olympics were especially memorable because I shared most the experience with my family on a vacation at New England. Each night we would watch the games in our hotel room and were especially drawn to the USA women's team gymnastics. We coincidentally followed this same pattern at the 2016 Rio games and watched the events unfold while on summer vacation at a lake cabin in Minnesota. I thought these games were probably the most entertaining in my lifetime with incredible superstar performances by Usain Bolt, Michael Phelps, Katie Ledecky, and Simone Biles. Also watching Neymar win gold for Brazil against Germany, with a penalty kick was drama at the highest level. And so that brings us to our current timeline, with the Tokyo Olympics. Although they were delayed a year due to the Covid pandemic, they are now in full flight. 

The Ancient Olympics

I have always been fascinated by Greek mythology, culture, and history and have written various times about their classical age (see Greek Antiquity, Greek Culture). By around 800 BC the region of Greece had established itself as a thriving society of city-states. Sport and competition was an integral part of this culture and is first demonstrated in Homer's epic poem of the Iliad.  It was during this age beginning in 776 BC that the first official Olympic games were held in the city of Olympia to honor the god Zeus. The games were organized as a ceremonial event that would celebrate the human body and give homage to the gods. Furthermore it brought peace throughout the region, during which time the city-states would honor a truce.

The ancient Olympic games occurred every four years, in what became known as an Olympiad. Some of the original sports included running, wrestling, boxing, discus throwing, the long jump, and horse racing. The champions were honored with an olive leaf crown and the utmost glory for their represented city-state. The games continued even thru the establishment of the Roman Empire until about 393 AD when the temple of Zeus was burned in a fire. Nearly 1500 years later an international tournament was organized to honor this ancient concept invented by the Greeks. The idea was to celebrate the human capabilities thru friendly competition and global celebration. And so the Modern Olympics carried on in the spirit of the ancient Olympics, being held every four years. 

From it's inception the Modern Olympics did make several adjustments to the ancient games in accordance with the present day society. For starters they included women in the competitions. Also they changed the location for each event, so that the host city was no longer only at Olympia, Greece. It was no longer an event for one nation, yet an international event for many nations. With each Olympic event, new games, rules, and structures have been constructed to continue to evolve the celebration. Here now I would like to capture the major changes and highlights of the past summer Olympic games. (I will not be including the Winter Olympics for now).  

The Modern Games

1896 Athens

• 
  14 nations represented (All European and the United States)
  
• 241 athletes
• 10 sports, 43 events (Athletics, cycling (road and track), fencing, gymnastics, shooting, swimming, tennis, weightlifting, and wrestling)
• Main Stadium was the Panathenaic Stadium
• Opened by King George of Greece
• The US won the most Gold Medals (11)
• Greece won the most overall medals (46) 
• Winners were given silver medals while runner-ups were given copper medals (this was later adjusted in 1904 to include 3 medalists at gold, silver, and bronze)
• Highlight performances
• Marathon victory by Spyridon Louis of Greece
• Four medals for Carl Schumann of Germany in wrestling and gymnastics 
• American James Connolly wins gold in the triple jump, silver in the high jump, and bronze in the long jump

1900 Paris

• 24 nations represented
  
• 997 athletes
• 21 sports, 95 events (new sports included archery, Basque pelota, cricket, croquet, equestrian, football, golf, polo, rugby, sailing, tug-of-war, and water polo)
• Main stadium was the Velodrome de Vincennes
• Women took part in the games for the first time
• This was a part of the 1900 World Fair also hosted by Paris at the time
• No opening or closing ceremonies were held
• The winners were not given medals yet rather cups and trophies
• There were many other competition events hosted by the World Fair that were not so much considered an Olympic sport such as kite flying and motor-racing
• Host nation France won the most medals at 111
• Highlight Performances: 
• American Alvin Kraenzlein receives 4 gold medals in track-and-field
• American Ray Ewry won 3 gold medals in triple jump, high jump, and long jump

1904 St. Louis

• 15 nations represented
• 651 athletes
  
• 17 sports, 95 events (the sport of boxing and the decathalon makes its debut) 
• Main Stadium was Francis Field at Washington University in St. Louis
• Opened by David R. Francis (Mayor of St. Louis)
• Held in association to the 1904 World Fair 
• Low attendance due to Russo-Japanese War and difficulty reaching the city of St. Louis
• United States won the medal count at 234
• Half of the participants of the marathon withdraw from the 24 mile race; it is eventually won by American Thomas Hicks 
• Highlight performances:
• American gymnast George Eyser won 6 medals
• American Frank Kugler won 3 medals in 3 different sports (wrestling, weightlifting, and tug-of-war)
• American James Lightbody won 3 gold medals in the steeplechase, the 800m, and the 1500m
• American Harry Hillman won 3 gold medals in the 400m, 200m hurdles, and 400m hurdles
• American Archie Hahn won 3 gold medals in the 60m, 100m, and 200m
• American Ray Ewry repeated his 3 gold medal performances at Paris by sweeping in the triple jump, long jump, and high jump once again

1908 London

• 22 nations represented (Debuts from Finland, Turkey, and New Zealand) 
• 2008 athletes
  
• 22 sports, 110 events (Diving makes it's debut as well as new winter events of figure skating and hockey)
• Main stadium was White City Stadium
• Opened by King Edward VII
• The games were relocated to London after the Mount Vesuvius eruption in Rome
• The longest modern day Olympics spanning a total of 187 days
• First events to include winter events 
• The marathon distance of 26.2 was established and had a memorable performance by Dorando Pietri of Italy who was aided on his final lap in the stadium and subsequently disqualified
• Great Britain won the most medals at 146 total
• Highlight Performances
• John Taylor became the first ever African-American to win a medal at the olympics; he competed with the medley relay team
• American jumper Ray Ewry wins his last 2 gold medals in the high jump and long jump (making for a very impressive overall total of 8 gold medals throughout his career)

1912 Stockholm

• 
  28 represented nations (Japan debuts as first ever Asian nation at the Olympic games; Egypt, Iceland, Portugal, Chile, and Armenia also make their debut)
• 2406 athletes
• 18 sports, 102 events (introduction of pentathlon and baseball)
• Main stadium at Stockholms Olympiastadion 
• Opened by King Gustaf V
• Sweden won the most medals with 65 total
• First games that have electronic timing
• First games in which an athlete dies during competition (Francisco Lazarro in the marathon)
• The sport of boxing is banned by Sweden (the only time the sport is not included since it's inception)
• The young George Patton (who would later become the honorable general of WWI and WWII) represented the American military at the games and competed at the pentathlon although he did not medal 
• Highlight Performances
• American Jim Thorpe wins gold in the decathlon and the pentathlon 
• Finnish long distance superstar Hannes Kolehmainen wins 3 gold medals in the 5000m, 10,000m, and 12,000m runs. 

1916 Berlin

• Cancelled due to WWI

1920 Antwerp

• 
  29 nations represented (Germany, Hungary, Austria, and Bulgaria were banned from the games; Soviet Union chose not to attend; Argentina and Brazil made their debuts)
• 2626 athletes
• 22 sports, 156 events
• Main stadium at Olympisch Stadion
• Opened by King Albert I
• This was the introduction of the Olympic flag; notably the 5 rings that represents the world's continents united
• The United States won the most medals at 95
• Highlight Performances:
• Nedo Nadi of Italy won 5 gold medals in fencing 
• Finnish long distance runner, Paavo Nurmi won 3 gold medals in the 10,000m, individual cross country, and the team cross country
• The American women swim team won gold in all 7 swimming events led by their superstar Ethelda Bleibtrey

1924 Paris

• 44 nations represented (Debuts of Ecuador, Haiti, Ireland, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Uruguay)
• 3089 athletes
  
• 17 sports, 126 events (figure skating and hockey are removed for the Winter Olympics)
• Main stadium at Stade Olmpique Yves-du-Manoir
• Opened by President Gaston Doumergue
• This marked the inception of the Winter Olympics which was first held at Chamonix, France 
• The introduction of the Closing Ceremony
• The introduction of the Olympic Village for athletes
• The "Flying Finns" dominated all the long distance running events
• The United States won the most medals at a total of 99
• Highlight Performances
• Pavo Nurmi won 5 gold medals for Finland in the 1500m, 5000m, individual cross country, team cross country, and team 3000m
• Ville Ritola won 4 gold and 2 silver medals for Finland in the 10,000m, 3000m steeplechase, 3000m team, team cross country; he finished 2nd behind Nurmi in the individual cross country and 5000m
• American swimmer Johnny Weismuller won 3 gold medals and a bronze medal in water polo
• British runners Eric Liddell and Harold Abrahams win gold in the sprinting events (which later inspires the film Chariots of Fire)
• American Harold Osborn set world records in the high jump and decathlon
• Roger Ducret won 5 medals for France in fencing

1928 Amsterdam

• 46 nations represented (Germany returned; Malta, Panama, and Rhodesia made their debut)
• 2883 athletes
  
• 14 sports, 109 events (tennis was discontinued for the next 64 years)
• Main stadium at Olympisch Stadion
• Opened by Prince Hendrik
• This marked the introduction of the ceremonial lighting of Olympic Flame
• The traditional parade of nations began at the opening ceremony with Greece leading the procession and the host nation ending the procession
• The 400 meter track was introduced as the standard for all track-and-field events
• This was the first Olympic Games to be categorized as the "Summer Olympics" in contrast to the "Winter Olympics"
• United States won the most medals at a total of 56
• Highlight Performances:
• South American football makes it's global breakthrough, with Uruguay winning the gold
• The great Paavo Nurmi competes in his last games and wins 3 more medals; gold in the 10,000m and silver in the 5000m and 3000m steeplechase (making for a very impressive total of 12 medals)
• Canadian sprinter Percy Williams wins gold in the 100m and 200m sprint
• American swimmer Johnny Weissmuller returned to win 2 more gold medals and later became a movie star most notably in the role of Tarzan
• Mikio Oda of Japan wins the triple jump and becomes the first Asian to win a gold medal

1932 Los Angeles

• 37 nations represented (China and Colombia made their debuts)
• 1332 athletes
  
• 14 sports, 117 events (Does not include soccer; American football and lacrosse were demonstrated at these games yet never became official sports)
• Main stadium at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum
• Opened by Vice President Charles Curtis
• Many nations could not partake due to the global economic Great Depression
• Despite the Depression, the Opening Ceremony has the highest ever attendance at 100,000 spectators which becomes the new staple for Olympic ceremonies
• The victory medal podium was introduced for the first time
• Soccer was dropped for the first and only time due to a dispute with the newly established FIFA World Cup tournament 
• United States won the medal count with a total of 103 medals
• Highlight performances: 
• The Italian Romero Neri won three gold medals in gymnastics
• The American Helene Madison won three gold medals in swimming
• American Babe Didrikson won 2 gold medals in the javelin throw and 80m hurdles; and silver in the high jump

1936 Berlin

• 49 nations represented (Debuts from Afghanistan, Bermuda, Bolivia, Costa Rica, and Liechtenstein)
  
• 3963 athletes
• 19 sports, 129 events (Basketball, canoeing, and handball made their debut)
• Main stadium of Olympiastadion 
• Opened by Chancellor Adolf Hitler
• Hitler used this event as a propaganda effort to demonstrate Nazi and racial supremacy (Jews were discouraged to participate in the games)
• The Opening Ceremony was attended by 100,000 spectators
• This was the first game that introduced the torch relay
• This was also the first ceremonial lighting of the Olympic Cauldron, by German runner Fritz Schilgen
• This was the first games to be televised, and included a significant documentary filmed by Leni Reifenstahl named Olympia. 
• Germany won the most medals with 89 total
• Highlight Performances:
• American sprinter Jesse Owens wins 4 gold medals in the 100m, 200m, 4x100m relay, and the long jump
• The Germans dominated the equestrian events
• The American John Woodruff won gold in the 800m in one of the most exciting races ever
• The Italian football team won gold, to secure it's dominance also winning the World Cups of 1934 and 1938. 
• American diver Marjorie Gestring becomes the youngest person to win a medal, at the age of 13

1940 Tokyo

• Forfeited due to Second Sino-Japanese War; relocated to Helsinki

1940 Helsinki

• Cancelled due to WWII

1944 London

• Cancelled due to WWII

1948 London

• 59 nations represented (Germany and Japan were banned from the games; 14 other nations made their debut; the Soviet Union chose not to partake)
• 4104 athletes
  
• 17 sports, 136 events
• Main stadium at Wembley Stadium
• Opened by King George VI
• Referred to as the Austerity Games, since Europe was still recovering economically from WWII
• 85,000 spectators at the opening ceremony at Wembley
• This was the first time starting blocks were used in the sprinting events
• United States won the most medals at 84
• Highlight Performances:
• Dutch sprinter Fanny Blankers-Koen won 4 gold medals in the 100m, 200m, 80m hurdles, and 4x100 relay (which was even more impressive since she was a mother of 2, that earned her the nickname "the flying housewife")
• Audrey Patterson was the first African-American woman to win a medal, by winning bronze in the 200m dash
• Alice Coachman shortly after became the first African-American woman to win a gold medal in the high jump

1952 Helsinki

• 69 nations represented (Debuts by the Soviet Union, Israel, Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia; Germany and Japan were welcomed back to the games)
• 
  4955 athletes
• 17 sports, 149 events
• Main stadium Helingin, Olympiastadion
• Opened by President Juho Kusti Paasikivi
• Most World Records were broke at these games
• The famous Flying Finn runner, Paavo Nurmen lit the Olympic Torch in the Opening Ceremony
• United States won the medal count with 76 total barely edging out the Soviet Union (71); this was to become the start of a new Olympic rivalry and a part of their Cold War
• Highlight Performances
• Viktor Chukarin of the Soviet Union won 4 gold medals in gymnastics
• Czech runner Emil Zatopek won 3 gold medals in long distance running events including the 5000m, 10,000m, and the marathon

1956 Melbourne

• 72 nations represented (China, Spain, Switzerland, Netherlands, and Egypt boycotted the games due to various political differences)
  
• 3314 athletes
• 17 sports, 151 events
• Opened at Melbourne Cricket Ground 
• Opened by Prince Philip, The Duke of Edinburg
• The games were boycotted by several nations due to the Israeli-Palestine tensions in the Suez Crisis, and the Soviet invasion of Hungary
• This was the first time the closing ceremony had all the nations parade together, a tradition that still holds today to represent world unity
• The equestrian events were held in Sweden due to strict Australian quarantine regulations
• The Soviet Union won the most medals at 98 total
• Highlight Performances
• Due to their political tension, the polo match between Hungary and the Soviet Union was fierce and known as "The Blood in the Water match"; Hungary won 4-0 and would later win the gold medal in the event. 
• Australian Betty Cuthbert became the host nation's golden girl by winning 3 gold medals in track events (100m, 200m, 4x100m relay)
• American sprinter Bobby Morrow won 3 gold medals in 100m, 200, and 4x100m relay

1960 Rome

• 83 nations represented (Debuts from Morocco, San Marino, Sudan, and Tunisia)
• 5338 athletes
  
• 17 sports, 155 events
• Opened at the Stadio Olimpico
• Opened by President Giovanni Gronchi
• Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed and died during her race due to heat stroke
• The debut of the Olympic Anthem (not to be confused with the American theme song "Olympic Fanfare" composed by John Williams at the 1984 games
• The Soviet Union once again won the most medals at 103
• Highlight Performances
• Swedish canoer Gert Fredriksson won his 6th gold medal
• Hungarian fencer Aladar Gerevich won his 7th gold medal at 6 different games
• Danish sailor Paul Elvstrom won his 4th consecutive gold medal
• American sprinter Wilma Rudolph won 3 gold medals in the 100m, 200m, and 4x100m relay and set new world records to be referred to as the fastest woman in the world
• Abebe Bikila of Ethiopa became the first African gold medalist by winning the marathon (of which he ran barefooted)
• The great boxer Cassius Clay (later known as Muhammad Ali) won gold in the heavyweight boxing

1964 Tokyo

• 93 nations represented (South Africa banned due to it's apartheid system; debut of 16 countries including Algeria, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, and Senegal)
• 5151 athletes
  
• 19 sports, 163 events (Debut of Judo and Volleyball)
• Opened at National Stadium
• Opened by Emperor Hirohito
• This was the first time the games were held in Asia and marked the return of the Japanese global economy following their downfall after WWII
• First games to be broadcast in color, and renown for it's groundbreaking documentary film, Tokyo Olympiad directed by Kon Ichikawa
• Yoshinori Sakai, a sprinter and survivor of the Hiroshima bombing lit the Olympic torch
• Soviet Union once again won the most medals at 96 (however the United States won the most gold medals)
• Highlight Performances:
• Soviet gymnast Larisa Latynina competed in her 3rd Olympic games and gathered 5 more medals to add to her career total of 18 Olympic Medals (this record stood for nearly 50 years until it was passed by Michael Phelps)
• Czech gymnast Vera Caslavska won 3 gold medals 
• Abebe Bikila of Ethiopa returned to defend his gold title in the marathon
• American swimmer Sharon Stouder won 3 gold and a silver medal
• American sprinter Bob Hayes won 2 gold medals in the 100m and 4x100m relay, and later played professional football for the Dallas Cowboys
• American boxer Joe Frazier won gold in the heavyweight event
• Native American Billy Mills wins a thrilling gold medal in the 10,000m run

1968 Mexico City

• 112 nations represented
• 5516 athletes
  
• 18 sports, 172 events
• Opened at the Estadio Olimpico Universitario
• Opened by President Gustavo Diaz Ordaz
• This was the first games hosted by a Latin American nation
• Mexican sprinter Enriqueta Basilio became the first woman to light the Olympic torch
• The games were held in the fall for cooler weather
• This was also in the midst of a labor protest known as the Mexican Student Movement in which hundreds were massacred in Tlatelolco shortly before the start of the games.
• The most iconic image of the game was the Black Power Salute on the podium by American sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos who finished 1st and 3rd in the 200m dash
• This was the first Olympics to use all-weather rubber running track surface opposed to the prior cinder track
• This also marked the introduction of doping tests (the first disqualified athlete was Swedish pentathlete Hans-Gunnar Liljenwell who drank several beers before competing) 
• This also marked the beginning of Kenyan/Ethiopian dominance in the long distance events 
• The United States won the most medals at 107
• Highlight Performances:
• Vera Caslavska won 4 gold medals and 2 silver models in the gymnastic events and protested against the Soviet invasion during her award ceremonies 
• George Foreman won the heavyweight boxing gold medal for America
• American Al Oerter won his 4th consecutive gold medal in the discuss throw
• Bob Beamon won gold in the long jump and set the world record that stood for 23 years
• Dick Fosbury won the gold in the high jump and introduced his iconic Fosbury flop which is still the technique used today
• American swimmer Debbie Meyer won 3 gold medals in the 200m, 400m, and 800m freestyle

1972 Munich 

• 121 nations represented (11 nations made their debut including North Korea and Saudi Arabia)
• 7134 athletes
• 21 sports, 195 events (new debuts of slalom canoeing, kayaking, indoor handball, and the return of archery) 
  
• Opened at the Olympiastadion
• Opened by President Gustav Heinemann
• This was Germany's chance to show off an optimistic representation of their heritage after the dark years of the Nazi Regime. The event was marketed as the "cheerful games" however tragedy quickly flipped that moniker.  
• The event was overshadowed by the Munich massacre in which 11 Israeli athletes were held hostage and eventually killed by a Palestine terrorist organization known as Black September
• The first official mascot was introduced, a wienerdog named Waldi
• The revolutionary Olympic Park was designed with modern acrylic glass; it brought the venues, villages, and other forms of entertainment all within close walking proximity. 
• Soviet Union won the medal count at 99 (with US shortly behind at 94)
• Highlight Performances:
• American swimmer set a new record by collecting 7 gold medals at one Olympic Games event (this record was later beaten by Michael Phelps who collected 8 at Beijing) 
• Soviet gymnast Olga Korbut won 4 golds and a silver 
• The United States lost to Soviet Union in a very controversial basketball game
• Valeriy Borzov won gold the 100m, 200m and silver in the 4x100m relay for the Soviet Union
• The Flying Finn's returned at long distance with Lasse Viren winning gold in the 5000m and 10,000m

1976 Montreal

• 92 nations represented (29 African nations boycotted the games to the allowance of New Zealand who had 
• 
  6084 athletes
• 21 sports, 198 events
• Opened at Olympic Stadium
• Opened by Queen Elizabeth II
• The Olympic cauldron was lit by Canadian athletes Stephane Prefontaine and Sandra Henderson
• Soviet Union won the most medals at 125 total
• Highlight Performances:
• This was the famous perfect 10 performance from Romanian gymnast Nadia Comaneci in the all around competition. She won 3 golds and a silver in the team event.
• Alberto Juantorena of Cuba became the first runner to win gold in both the 400m and 800m runs
• Finnish runner Lasse Viren won gold in the 5000m and 10,000m
• Five great American boxers won gold medals including Sugar Ray Leonard, Leon Spinks, Michael Spinks, Leo Randolph, and Howard Davis
• Japanese gymnast endured a broken knee to help his team win gold in gymnastrics
• Bruce Jenner won the gold in the decathalon (and then many years later had famous sex change to become known as Caitlyn Jenner)

1980 Moscow

• 80 nations represented (66 countries boycotted including the United States due to the Soviet-Afghan war)
• 5179 athletes
  
• 21 sports, 203 events (synchronized swimming and rhythmic gymnastics debuted) 
• Opened at the Grand Arena of the Central Lenin Stadium
• Opened by Chairman Leonid Brezhnev
• Cauldron lit by Russian basketball player Sergei Belov
• The western nations that boycotted the games hosted their own special "Liberty Bell Classic" in Philadelphia mostly for athletics 
• Many world records were set at these games but there was also many instances of doping
• Soviet Union won the most medals at 195
• Highlight Performances:
• Ethiopian Miruts Yifter won gold in the 5000m and 10,000m run
• Soviet gymnast Alexander Dityatin won 8 gold medals in the gymnastic events (the most ever at a games, until equaled by Phelps)
• The great Nadia Comaneci won 4 more medals in gymnastics including 2 gold and 2 silver 
• Vladimir Salnikov won 3 gold medals for the Soviet Union in swimming

1984 Los Angeles

• 140 nations represented (14 nations of the Eastern Bloc boycotted the game, including the Soviet Union)
• 6829 athletes
  
• 21 sports, 221 events
• Opened at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum
• Opened by President Ronald Reagan
• Cauldron was lit by American decathlete Rafer Johnson
• This was considered one of the most profitable of the games, since Los Angeles had already hosted in 1932, they had most the venues already in place (223$ million profit) 
• John Williams composed the iconic "Olympic Fanfare" at these games which has ever since accompanied NBC's programming of the games
• This was the first running of the women's marathon, won by American Joan Benoit
• The soccer tournament was won by France, and brought major attendance at each game which convinced the US to host the FIFA World Cup in 1994. 
• This was the debut of the women's 3000m run which was loaded with controversary after the American favorite Mary Decker was clipped by South African Zola Budd, and the Romanian Maricica Puica won the gold 
• The United States won the most medals for the first time since 1968, with a total of 174
• Highlight Performances:
• This was the arrival of the great track star Carl Lewis, who equaled Jesse Owen's 4 gold performance in the 100m, 200m, 4x100m, and long jump. 
• Carlos Lopes of Portugal won the marathon and set the Olympic record that stood for 24 years
• American Mary Lou Retton won a total of 5 medals, including gold in the all-around competition of which she equaled Nadia Comaneci's perfect 10 performance
• Li Ning of China won a total of 6 medals, including 3 gold medals

1988 Seoul

• 159 nations represented (Soviet Union returned, however several socialist nations boycotted the games including North Korea and Cuba)
• 8391 athletes
  
• 23 sports, 237 events (tennis returned after 64 year hiatus, and table tennis makes it's debut)
• Opened at Seoul Olympic Stadium
• Opened by President Roh Tae-Woo
• Cauldron lit by long distance runners Sohn Kee-Chung, Chung Sun-Man, and Kim Won-tak
• Soviet Union won the medal count at 132 total medals
• Highlight Performances:
• Soviet gymnast Vladimir Artemov won 4 gold medals
• Romanian gymnast Daniela Silivas won 6 medals, including 3 golds, and equaled Nadia Comaneci's 7 perfect 10's record
• Florence Griffith-Joyner won 3 gold medals in the 100m, 200m, and 4x100m and set the world record in the 100m dash that still stands to this day. 
• American diver Greg Louganis won 2 gold medals 
• German swimmer Kristin Otto won 6 gold medals
• American swimmer Matt Biondi won 7 medals (including 5 gold medals)
• Jackie Joyner-Kerse wins gold medals in the heptathlon and long jump
• Steffi Graff won the gold medal for Germany in tennis achieving the rare Career Golden Slam (American Pam Shriver also achieved this feat at the same games, however in the doubles event)

1992 Barcelona

• 169 nations (South Africa re-invited to games after apartheid ends; debut of newly established nations such as Croatia, Bosnia, and Slovenia)
• 
  9356 athletes
• 25 sports, 257 events (baseball, badminton, and judo became official sports)
• Opened at Estadio Olimpic de Montjuic
• Opened by King Carlos I
• Cauldron lit by archer Antonio Rebllo 
• Due to the recently disbanded Soviet Union, a Unified Team was assembled which consisted of Soviet and Baltic athletes
• Allowance of professional athletes to play in basketball tournament gave way to the iconic American "Dream team" which included Michael Jordan, Larry Bird, Magic Johnson, and many other NBA superstars
• The Unifed Team won the most medals at 112 total
• Highlight Performances:
• Spanish distance runner Fermin Cacho became the star for his home country by winning gold in the 1500m 
• Vitaly Scherbo of Belarus won 6 gold medals in gymnastics
• Hungarian swimmer Krisztina Egerszegi won 3 gold medals in swimming
• British sprinter Derek Redmond pulled his hamstring during a semi-final race, and was aided by his father to finish the race, making for a very iconic Olympics moment.
• American Gail Devers was the favorite to win the womens 100m hurdle however tripped over the last hurdle to finish 5th place. She still won gold however in the 100m dash
• The American Dream team easily won the gold medal, it what has become one of the most dominant performances in the Olympic basketball history

1996 Olympics

• 197 nations represented (24 new nations made their debut stemming from the collapse of the Soviet Union)
• 10,320 athletes
  
• 26 sports, 271 events (beach volleyball, mountain biking, softball made their debuts)
• Opened at the Centennial Olympic Stadium
• Opened by President Bill Clinton
• Cauldron lit by Muhammad Ali
• This was the first year the Winter Olympics were held in a different year to alternate with the Summer Olympics
• A terrorist pipe bomb went off at the Centennial Olympic Park that killed two people and injured 111 people
• This was the first performance of John Lennon's song "Imagine" which has now become a traditional song performed at the Olympic opening ceremonies. 
• The United States won the total medal count at 101 
• Highlight Performances:
• American sprinter Michael Johnson arrived to the stage and won gold in the 200m and 400m dash (with a world record in the 200m dash) 
• French sprinter Marie-Jose Perec also won the 200m and 400m dash gold for the women's event
• American tennis player Andre Agassi won gold and achieved the golden slam of 4 grand slams and the Olympic medal
• Canadian sprinter Donovan Bailey won gold in the 100m dash with a new world record
• Amy Van Dyken won 4 gold medals in swimming
• This was the last game Carl Lewis competed in and incredibly defended his gold in long jump for the 4th time
• The American's women team "known as the Magnificent Seven" won the gymnastic gold medal, lead by the heroic performance by Kerri Strug he strained her ankle and the adorable Dominique Moceanu 

2000 Sydney

• 199 nations
• 10,651 athletes
  
• 28 sports, 300 events (debut of the triathlon and taekwondo) 
• Opened at Stadium Australia
• Opened by Governor-General Sir William Deane
• Cauldron lit by Australian sprinter Cathy Freeman
• These Olympic games were acclaimed as the most entertaining and successful of all games by most critics
• United States won the medal count at 93
• Highlight Performances:
• Cathy Freeman of Australian being the icon star of her nation won gold in the 400m dash; she became the first person to light the cauldron and win a gold medal at the same games; she won her gold medal race in front of a record attendance of 112,5000 spectators
• Ian Thorpe (aka the "Thorpedo") of Australia won 5 medals in swimming (3 of which were gold) 
• Michael Johnson defended his 400m title for the 2nd time
• Maurice Greene won gold in the 100m and 4x100m relay
• Marion Jones wins 5 medals but loses them in 2007 after failing doping tests
• Michael Phelps competes in his first Olympics at the age of 15 but does not medal

2004 Athens

• 201 nations represented
• 10,625 athletes
  
• 28 sports, 301 events
• Opened at Olympic Stadium
• Opened by President Konstantinos Stephanopoulos
• Cauldron lit by sailing champion Nikolaos Kaklamanakis 
• The games brought significant infrastructure improvements to the city of Athens, however is later blamed to be the cause of their economic crisis in 2008. 
• Several of the events were hosted at ancient sites and venues such as the Panathenaic Stadium
• United States won the medal count at 101
• Highlight Performances:
• Michael Phelps bursts onto the world stage of swimming by winning 8 medals (6 gold and 2 bronze)
• Brazilian marathon runner, Vanderlei Cordiero de Lima was attacked by an Irish marathon runner, yet still managed to win the bronze medal
• British runner Kelly Holmes won gold in the 800m and 1500m
• Chinese hurdler Lui Xang wins the 1st ever gold medal in track and field for China
• Hicham el Guerroj of Morocco wins the gold in the 1500m and 5000m 
• The United States has a poor performance in basketball and wins the bronze while Argentina win the gold
• Gymnast Carly Patterson wins 3 medals, including the gold for the all-around performance
• Usain Bolt competes in his first Olympics however does not medal
• Lionel Messi makes his international debut to lead Argentina to winning the gold medal in football 

2008 Beijing

• 204 nations represented
• 10,942 athletes
• 28 sports, 302 events (debut of BMX cycling) 
  
  
  
• Opened at Beijing National Stadium (The Bird's Nest)
• Opened by President Hu Jintao
• Cauldron lit by gymnast Li Ning
• The opening ceremony was on a grand scale with thousands of performers, fireworks, and special effects. It was a massive success and considered one of the greatest opening ceremonies in Olympics history; it was also the most expensive
• The venues of the Nest and the Water Cube were very unique and cutting edge architecture
• Michael Phelps and Usain Bolt stole the show with their golden performances 
• Many Olympic records and world records were broke at this game
• The US won the most medals at a total of 112, China had 100
• Highlight Performances
• Michael Phelps became a superstar at these games and broke all sorts of world and Olympic records with his performance. He won 8 gold medals in each of the events he competed in, and broke Mark Spitz's 7 gold performance at Munich 1972
• Usain Bolt of Jamaica also burst onto the stage as the fastest man in the world. He broke various world records as he won gold in the 100m, 200m, and 4x100m relay
• The Chinese women won the team gymnastics, while Americans also performed well; Natsia Lukin won the individual competition and went home with 5 medals; Shawn Johnson went home with 4 medals including gold in the balance beam
• Raphael Nadal won gold in the tennis event, while  Roger Federer won gold in tennis pairs with his partner Stanislas Warwinka
• The US Men's basketball team assembled one of the greatest superstar line-ups since 1992, consisting of Kobe Bryan, Lebron James, and Dwayne Wade. After their failure in 2004 the men's team was referred to as the "Redeem Team" and dominated the tournament to win gold

2012 London

• 204 nations represented
• 10,768 athletes
  
• 26 sports, 302 events (debut of women's boxing)
• Opened at London Olympic Stadium
• Opened by Queen Elizabeth II
• Cauldron lit by 7 young Olympians 
• Opening ceremony was once again on a very grand scale; the iconic Tower Bridge was illuminated with the Olympic Rings for the duration of the games
• South African sprinter Oscar Pistorius became the first amputee to compete in the games, in the 400m however this was controversial due to the use of the springy running blades; he only made it as far as the semi-finals however
• United States won the most medals at 104
• Highlight Performances:
• Michael Phelps collected 6 more medals (4 gold and 2 silver) and set the new record at 22 for most medals by an Olympian
• Usain Bolt defended his 3 gold medals in the 100m, 200m, and 4x100m relay
• Missy Franklin won 4 gold medals and a bronze medal with her specialty being the backstroke
• The US women's gymnastic team were referred to as the "Fierce Five" led by Aly Raisman, Gabby Douglas, Makayla Maroney and won the gold medal
• British distance runner Mo Farah won the gold in the 5000m and 10,000m
• Shelly Ann Fraiser of Jamaica defended her gold in the 100m dash, and won 2 silvers in the 200m and 4x100m relay
• Katie Ledecky also made her debut at these games winning her first gold in the 800m freestyle
• British Jessica Ennis-Hill was the face of her host nation and won gold in the heptathlon
• American sprinter Allyson Felix had an impressive performance with 3 gold medals in the 200m, 4x100m relay, and 4x400m relay
• In women's beach volleyball the iconic duo of Misty May-Treanor and Kerri Walsh won their 3rd consecutive gold medal in the event

2016 Rio de Janiero

• 207 nations represented
• 11,238 athletes
  
• 28 sports, 306 events (Rugby and Golf made their return)
• Opened at the Maracana Stadium
• Opened by Vice President Michel Temer
• Cauldron lit by Brazilian long distance runner Vanderlei Cordeiro de Lima
• This was the first games held in South America and the 2nd by Latin America (since Mexico 1968)
• Brazil had successfully hosted the World Cup in 2014, however there were still fears regarding construction delays and the outbreak of a mosquito Zika virus
• American Muslim and fencer, Ibtihaj Muhammad became the first women to compete in a hijab
• More than 100 Russians were banned for doping 
• The United States won the most medals at 121
• Highlight Performances:
• Michael Phelps won 5 more gold medals and a silver medal to set his all-time Olympic record at 28 total medals.
• Usain Bolt defended his sprinting titles for a 3rd consecutive Olympic games winning gold once again in the 100m, 200m, and 4x100m relay
• Simone Biles burst onto the stage with her dominant performance in gymnastics. She won 4 gold medals in the team, individual all-around, vault, and floor exercise; and bronze in the balance beam
• Katie Ledecky also had a dominant performance in the pool winning 4 gold medals and a silver medal
• Simone Manuel became the first African-American to win gold in the swimming events (she won a total of 4 medals including 2 gold and 2 silver)
• Kenyan runner David Rudisha defended his golden title in the 800m dash
• Jamaican sprinter Elaine Thompson-Herah dethroned her compatriot Shelly-Ann to become the new female champion in the sprints. She won gold in the 100m, 200m and silver in the 4x100m relay
• South African sprinter Wade van Neikerk won gold in the 400m, and set a new WR (dethroning the great Michael Johnson). What was especially impressive about this race was that he was in the outside 8th lane. 
• Ashton Eaton defending his title in the decathlon 

Book Review: Divine Comedy: Paradiso

In the third and final book of the Divine Comedy, the poet Dante ascends into heaven with the guidance of his personal acquittance, Beatrice. To him, Beatrice represents everything that is beautiful, pure, joyful, and the total embodiment of love. Although she is not a historically significant figure, like Virgil or the other spirits Dante meets along his journey, she actually was someone Dante knew in his lifetime. She was Dante's first love as a child yet they never shared an actual relationship and she died at the young age of 25. Nonetheless she was forever Dante's ultimate desire and muse of his writings. Considering the fact that both Dante and Beatrice married different people, one could make the claim that Dante was over infatuated with this woman, and partaking in covetous and adulterous behavior. However he never acted immorally towards her and it was ultimately just a fantasy of what could have been with the one that got away. 

Through the guidance of Beatrice, Dante leaves earth and ascends into the mystical cosmos of the universe, that represent the layers of heaven. Just like with the Inferno and Mount Purgatory there are nine levels plus one mystical domain. The levels in Paradiso are actually the planetary orbit as we know it consisting of the planets, the sun, and the stars in outer space. It begins with the moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the fixed stars, and the outer rim known as the Primum Mobile. The further Dante gets away from earth, the closer he gets to the highest of heavens known as the Empyrean. While Dante's cosmological description may be somewhat dated it still holds with today's general scientific outline of the planetary orbit. 

I actually really like this theory of the heavens being located up in the stars of outer space. Of course scientifically we know that space is an actual physical place, it still seems unobtainable to human exploration and settlement. Therefore it serves as an endless mass of mystery; an abyss of rocks, energy, maybe extraterrestrial life, or maybe even the countless spirits of the dead. Considering how many stars are in the night sky, it makes for quite a comparable and romantic notion that they represent the righteous souls that have passed on. Dante uses the physical locations of the planets, and even introduces a non-physical domain known as the Empyrean to serve as the home of God. 

Dante's Paradiso

After Dante erases his sinful memories in the river of the Earthly Garden, he is ready to ascend into the heavens with Beatrice. This first includes passage thru the Sphere of Fire, which is more-or-less the earth's atmosphere by which Dante leaves Earth and enters space. The first physical location they arrive to is the moon, which is home to the inconstant. These are righteous souls who broke their vows with God and lacked fortitude. The second tier is the planet Mercury where dwell the righteous souls who were driven by ambition. These beings achieved great fame and glory however lacked justice and devotion to God. In this sphere, Dante meets the Roman emperor Justinian, who ambitiously sought to restore Roman tradition to the Byzantine empire in 500 AD. 

The third sphere is that of Venus, for those who engaged in a life of love yet lacked in temperance. It is also understood by this point that each soul is very content with where they are located and not seeking upward mobility. From this point on Dante visits locations that were not lacking in virtues yet rather exceeding in the virtues of prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude. The fourth sphere is that of the sun, which is home to the wise. These are the souls who displayed great prudence and illuminated humanity with their wisdom and intellect. Historical examples on this sphere include the 12 wise men such as Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus, and King Solomon. 

The fifth sphere is located on the planet Mars, for the warriors of faith who displayed the virtue of fortitude. This includes religious rulers, knights from the crusades and biblical heroes. Historical examples include Joshua, Judas Maccabeaus, Charlemagne, Roland, and Godfrey of Bouillon. The sixth sphere is Jupiter for the just rulers and those who demonstrated the virtue of justice. Historical examples include David, Hezekiah, Trajan, Constantine, William II of Sicily, Ripheus of Troy, and a symbolic imperial eagle. The seventh sphere is Saturn for the contemplatives who demonstrated temperance. Here they meet the monk Peter Damian who describes to them the concept of predestination in which all souls have a determined fate by God. This is the final physical planet they inhabit before entering the sphere of the stars. 

The Eighth sphere is the domain of stars, where dwell the church triumphant who exceeded in the theological virtues of faith, hope, and love. In this realm Dante meets the highest of saints such as the Virgin Mary and St. Peter. The ninth sphere is the outer layer of space known as the Primum Mobile. Here dwell the angels, the celestial servants of God and intermediaries between God and humanity. Dante describes the domain in 9 rings which is in reference to the hierarchy of angels. At the upper realm are God's personal servants known as the Seraphim, Cherubim, and the Thrones. The second realm is for the governors of the heavenly domain, known as the lordships, virtues, and the powers. In the lower tier is the principalities, the archangels, and the angels who govern over humanity. 

The tenth and final sphere is a non-physical domain referred to by Dante as the Empyrean. Here dwells the highest of angels, spirits, and the source and creator of everything, God. Within this mystical domain of light and beauty, Dante sees an enormous rose with angels flying around it. At this point Beatrice bids him farewell and returns to her home in the rose, while Dante transcends into a mystical state. Here he is guided by Saint Bernard who further explains the mystical domain and the concept of predestination. Finally Dante comes face-to- face with God, who takes on the shape of 3 circles that represent the father, the son, and the holy spirit. Within the circles Dante can make out the humanly figure of Jesus Christ. At this point Dante understands God's love and thus ends the epic journey into the afterlife. 

Dante's Spheres of Paradise

What I especially love about this epic poem is Dante's consistent pattern of 10 levels in each of the 3 books. While the underworld of the inferno is broken into tiers and the mount purgatory is broken in terraces, the domain of Paradiso is broken into spheres. These spheres are in accordance to the earth's distance from the planets. As Dante gets deeper into space and further away from Earth, he also gets closer to God and the highest of heavens. Just as the Inferno was ranked by the 7 deadly sins, the levels of heaven are ranked by the 7 virtues and beyond. The upper most spheres are for the angels and the mystical domain of God. 

• 
  Sphere 1: The Moon (Inconstant) Those who broke their vows with God
• Sphere 2: Mercury (The Ambitious) Those who were overly ambitious
• Sphere 3: Venus (The Lovers) Those who put love for one another above God
• Sphere 4: The Sun (The Wise) Those who illuminated the world with wisdom and prudence 
• Sphere 5: Mars (The Warriors of Faith) Those who fought for God and demonstrated great fortitude
• Sphere 6: Jupiter (The Just Rulers) Those who ruled fairly and demonstrated great justice in their leadership
• Sphere 7: Saturn (The Contemplatives) Those who demonstrated great self-restraint, devotion, and temperance to God
• Sphere 8: The Fixed Stars (Faith, Hope, and Love) The highest of saints who embodied the utmost theological virtues 
• Sphere 9: Primum Mobile (The Angels) The outermost realm of the physical universe where dwell the angels in 9 rings
• Sphere 10: The Empyrean (Highest Heaven) The mystical realm of illumination and the abode of God 

Historical Study: The Great Plains War

After returning from my trip out west, I now naturally find myself fascinated with western culture and history. I have begun watching the HBO series, Deadwood and intend to buy the popular western video game, Red Dead Redemption. Western culture has become it's own genre now, with the cliché cowboys, Indians, saloons, shoot-outs, and such. This is certainty not the first time I have emerged myself into a western appreciation phase. It seems every year I get into some sort of Civil War/western appreciation usually around fall time. I have written several times now on topics concerning the Old West; (see The Old West, Removal of Native Americans.) 

Last summer I actually was in a brief Native American phase while playing the video game Assassin's Creed 3 (set during the American Revolution). My studies focused more on the origins of the Native Americans, their role in the American Revolution, and their eventual expulsion via the Removal Act of 1830. However I ended my studies there and did not get into the American-Indian wars out west. By around the time of the Civil War, most Native American strongholds were west of the Mississippi River and the resistance had grown quite strong at this point. Most native tribes knew the American "white man" was there to stay and conquer their land. The movie Dances With Wolves really depicts the western struggle of the time.   

While there were many American-Indian skirmishes and battles in the west, I'm going to focus primarily on one region, the Great Plains of Dakota. This was the region of strong resistance from the Sioux tribes (Lakota, Dakota, and Cheyenne) and resulted in several infamous wars and massacres in the region. I just learned some of this after watching the film Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (which is based off a popular book about the event). I felt very intrigued by the movie and felt the urge to dive deeper into the controversial topic. So in this post I'd like to understand the Sioux tribes and leaders of the Dakota/Black Hills region. I'd also like to understand the Americans' efforts at diplomacy, and further understand the Ghost Movement that lead to violent reaction. 

Dakota Wars

Western migration began to really boom in the 1840s via the Oregon Trail and the gold rush of 1849. However these expeditions were frequently attacked by native tribes, who naturally felt their land was under threat. In an effort to establish peaceful relations, the Americans compromised with the local natives in the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851). This essentially gave the local natives a reserved region in the Black Hills region of South Dakota. The Indians (which included the Cheyenne and the Sioux) agreed to no longer attack white migrants. Despite this agreement however, the natives felt their territorial and financial dues were not fully paid and thus continued to attack the settlers. 

The attacks throughout the Minnesota and Dakota region eventually hit a boiling point in August of 1862, that caused the American military to get involved. The Dakota War of 1862 was a very brief one (as most American-Indian wars are), and resulted in the surrender of the Dakota insurgents by late September. After various trials were held, 38 Dakotas were mass executed in a single day (the largest single day mass execution in American History). The result of the war exiled the remaining Dakotas out of Minnesota and further west into their allotted reserved territory in South Dakota. 

During the Civil War, it's well documented that the majority of Natives supported the southern confederate states in hopes of better liberties. However just like during the French and Indian Wars and the American Revolution the Natives were once again on the losing side. Following the Civil War, conflicts and skirmishes continued to intensify throughout the Great Plain territory. Union Gen Philip Sheridan was given command to neutralize the Great Plain region and appointed Gen George Custer to command the 7th infantry. These campaigns however only lead to further native massacres and bloodshed such as the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864, Red Cloud's War in 1866, the Washita Massacre of 1868, and the Marias Massacre of 1870. 

Great Sioux War of 1876

Despite their defeat at Red Cloud's War the Lakotas continued to strongly resist western occupation of the Dakota territory. They were lead by strong war leaders such as Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, and the famous Sitting Bull. The tension reached another tipping point in 1875 when a gold rush had reached the Black Hill territory. In a diplomatic effort the US government, offered to buy the reserved land they had given the Dakota and Sioux natives and relocate them further west. The native tribes did not agree to this offer however and refused to leave their territory in the Black Hills. In response to this Gen Custer attacked the Lakota stronghold at the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876. 

The Battle of Little Bighorn began the Great Sioux War and is one of the most famous American-Indian battles for two reasons; it was a rare victory for the Indians yet more so was the heroic last stance of Gen Custard. Fought in the Montana territory, the Lakota tribes were lead to victory by Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull. Gen Custer's fatal mistake was dividing his army into 3 battalions with no knowledge of how large the force he was fighting. Given the hilly terrain the Indians were able to hide their numbers and managed to surround Gen Custer on a hill. Completely outnumbered Gen Custer and his battalion fought to their deaths on the hillside. While it was a major defeat for the Americans it also became a rallying cry for more military engagement. 

Following this shocking defeat, the American military intensified their campaigns throughout the region and were quickly able to subdue the resistant Lakota and Dakota tribes. The Great Sioux War ended with the Agreement of 1877 which made all of the Indian territory official American annexations. The Sioux were still granted reserved territory, however their way of life was now at a major turning point. They could either chose to assimilate with the American culture or continue to stubbornly resist (despite the impossible odds). I can only imagine this fork in the road, and the utter dilemma of choosing to support the enemy or support a dying way of life. 

Ghost Dance Movement

After years of depressive assimilation and rising alcoholism the natives found some brief solace during the Ghost Dance Movement of 1889. This fascinating spiritual practice incorporated traditional native round dances with new philosophical beliefs of recalling the dead spirits. This concept was made popular throughout the west by Paiute religious leader, Jack Wilson also known as the Prophet Wovoka. He shared his vision in which this spiritual dance would call upon the spirits of the dead to fight against western expansionism and unite the native tribes. This movement brought many natives an optimistic return to their heritage, amidst the struggles of assimilating.  

However the American government quickly felt threatened by this sudden spark of Indian unity. The movement was even supported by their heroic war leader, Sitting Bull. American military outposts began to fear this was a precursor to revamped Indian aggression. I suppose it's no different than the police brutality that occurred during the hippie counter-culture years. The establishment felt they had to quickly end what could become a launching pad for a new conflict, and thus they engaged in a preemptive strike. 

Massacre of Wounded Knee

The first major strike came with the murder of Sitting Bull on Dec 14th of 1890. He was shot in the head by local authorities after refusing to comply and end the Ghost Dance movement. This of course only heightened the Lakota's hostility and lead to the infamous Massacre of Wounded Knee. The American Army had arrived to the Wounded Knee Indian Reserve in the Black Hills of South Dakota to neutralize the encampment. Their intentions were to disarm the entire encampment in what they feared was a stronghold of the Ghost Dance Movement. However the local natives did not take well to handing over their arms, and soon the hostility escalated. 

The Massacre occurred on a snowy Dec 29th, 1890 in what was to become the deadliest massacre in American history. It began as a standoff in which the young Lakota warrior, Black Coyote refused to hand over his rifle. This lead to a scuffle that caused his rifle to discharge, however there is speculation as to who pulled the trigger. The discharging rifle lead to an instantaneous gun-fight between the two sides at short range. The American army had the clear advantage in the shoot-out with better guns and experience. However following the shoot-out, chaos erupted all throughout the camp and American soldiers began acting without orders. In fear of their own safety American soldiers began slaughtering the men, women, and children of the encampment. 

The entire event maybe lasted an hour with casualties mounting from 150-300. 25 of these included American soldiers, but the rest were Lakota Indians. This massacre quickly brought public support to the native's struggle who felt it was an unjust use of force. In an effort to quell and repair the situation, the government granted the natives more funds and land reserves. By this point the Ghost Dance movement had lost it's traction and the Sioux people continued onward with their assimilation into American society. To this day the Black Hills region is loaded with historical monuments to their Native leaders. This is an area I would love to explore someday. 

Grand Canyon Trip 2021

This past week I had an incredible vacation with family to see the Grand Canyon for the first time. It's a place I've had on my bucket list for some time, and can say it was very well worth the long trip. I've been in the southwestern region several times for football gigs, visiting cities such as Forth Worth, San Antonio, Phoenix, and Tuscon, AZ. I also had a very memorable visit to Las Vegas for my first time in 2008 with the Palmer family and our friend EJ. However despite all this traveling out west, I had still not seen the Grand Canyon until now. It was about the last major American landmark remaining on my bucket list, and I feel so very gratified to have now seen it. 

I use to think of the Grand Canyon as a giant crater, however it's so much more than that. It's a very long and deep ridge that runs along the Colorado river. While it appears to be high up in the air (at an elevation of around 7000 feet), it actually falls very low into the earth, making for a deadly drop. With it's vast array of mountains, rocks, and winding ledges it's quite frankly one of the most incredible sights I have ever seen. It's a sight that truly needs to be seen with one's own eyes. The photos and videos just don't quite do it justice. It's an overwhelmingly immense and breathtaking site that makes it such an iconic natural wonder. 

Each summer our family tries to make a summer trip to some place new and I'm very grateful we still keep this tradition alive. Last summer our options were limited due to Covid, and we had a mini 4-day wknd in West Virginia. So this summer we decided to go big, and take a flight out to Las Vegas for a week long adventure in the area. Our starting point was in Vegas, then a few days in Flagstaff AZ, and then back to Vegas for the return trip. Our focal point of the trip was of course the Grand Canyon. It was my parents, Gabriel, Andres, my grandma Ofelia, and myself that made the trip. I can gladly say that the vacation was a total memorable success and among my favorite family vacations ever (up there with New York 05, New England 12, and Europe 17 and 18). 

Day 1 and 2: Las Vegas

My parents, Gabriel, and grandma arrived on a separate plane before us on Monday morning. Andres and I had decided to get separate tickets because we wanted to return before Sunday. We caught an Uber from my place and flew via Spirit Airlines (it was a fairly good flight and I played Switch to pass the time). We arrived around noon local time, welcomed by the immense heat of 110 degrees. We once again caught an Uber to our hotel at the Venetian. Although I would have preferred to stay at the Bellagio, this was also a hotel I really wanted to experience. It did take not long to be absorbed by the euphoric allure of a hotel resort and casino. Once we met up with my parents, Andres and I got some lunch and an expensive 9$ beer. Then we checked into our hotel rooms, where I was sharing a room with Gabriel. 

Later that day after a little bit of rest, the four of us guys went outside to the pool. For a little bit I was captivated by the scenery and the many attractive women in bikinis, but it did not take long for the heat to take precedence. We eventually found a spot with some shade and I joined Gabriel and dad in the pool. I also ordered a beer for Gabriel and we hung out in the pool for a bit. It was maybe for about an hour that we all decided the heat was too much and were ready to return inside. We met up with my mom and grandma and decided to take a stroll and find some dinner. We settled on an Asian place and I had Pad Thai. However the place was not Keto-friendly so after dinner we had to find a place for my mom.

It was around evening time that we began to stroll on the iconic Vegas Blvd., loaded with incredible sights and architecture. We eventually found her a Chipotle, and I was glad to see a beer sold at only $4. We then continued our walk to see Caesar's Palace and the Bellagio. The fountains of Bellagio were as incredible as ever, and we watched several shows overlooking the Paris Hotel as the sun set. That evening we walked around a little more and my mom won 18$ on her first attempt at slots. That was really about the only gambling we did. I felt some minor temptation to try, but gladly never gave in the whole trip. I remember that night walking home in the heat was exhausting, especially for my dad and grandma. We eventually made it back around 10pm too tired to continue to party (considering we had traveled all day and it was around 1am on eastern time).

The next morning I awoke early around 6am and ventured down to the lobby to find a coffee spot. I was quite amazed too see so many people awake and gambling on the casino floors so early in the morning. I bought some overpriced coffee and tea for my dad, grandma, and myself. We didn't really have much of a breakfast, minus some snacking in the hotel room. I then joined Gabriel to pick up our car rental at the airport. Once we left our hotel, I was glad to convince everyone to see Old Vegas on our way out of town that day. We found a parking spot and walked along the famous Fremont Street. I remember having a very fun night in 2008 at this place when I visited Vegas with the Palmer family. However this time around I was quite disappointed to see the street so trashy and empty. Could have been because it was daytime and it still had it's iconic LED ceiling. 

Day 2: Hoover Dam and Flagstaff, AZ

That afternoon we left Las Vegas and made a stop along the way at the iconic Hoover Dam. We found a look-out spot of which dad, Gabriel, Andres, and I ascended a path to this very high up bridge. The bridge offered us a clear look at the Hoover Dam in all it's glory. it was a glorious sight, yet the deathly height at which we stood made it for a rather quick view after some photos. After this we visited the actual Hoover Dam and walked around the structure for a while. The biggest reference on everyone's mind was of course the classic Chevy Chase scene in the movie Vegas Vacation, where he climbs up the dam. We walked from one end of the dam to the other, yet once again were quickly exhausted by the immense heat. Ofelia and dad were especially looking fatigued and we had to rest frequently. 

After our visit to the dam, we decided to bypass our visit to the Grand Canyon skywalk and head to Flagstaff. We finally had a late lunch at a gas station, called the Last Stop, which I think helped everyone feel re-energized. I ordered some very tasty wings here. After lunch I took on a driving shift that was loaded with hilly roads, rainy weather, and other obstacles. We hit a total road block coming into Flagstaff and the GPS took us on an epic detour thru a muddy forest. The area was unlike anything we'd seen before, an open forest with random campers and cows walking along the road. My greatest fear was getting stuck in the mud, and after 30 minutes was glad we made it back on road. However when we arrived to Flagstaff, there was an even worse problem of mudslides. I had to quickly find us another detour thru the many road-blocks in the city. Once we arrived to our hotel at the Best Western Inn, we ate dinner at a nearby Mexican food truck. That night Gabriel and I swam at the pool and hot-tub for a little bit before bed.

Day 3: Horseshoe Bend 

The next morning we got to enjoy some Continental Breakfast at the hotel which was quite nice. Afterwards Gabriel drove us to the iconic Horseshoe Bend located in northern Arizona near the town of Page. It was about a 2 hour drive and when we arrived to the parking lot it appeared like it was going to be a major disappointment. As we hiked to the lookout point, there was really nothing to be seen except open fields of desert and mountains in the distance. However once we got to the lookout spot, it immediately became worth the trip. To everyone's astonishment the view was submerged and we were actually standing on a plateau overlooking a river in a canyon. This view was so incredible, because the river was making a very sharp turn to create the shape of a horseshoe. 

The drop-off from the ridge was the most deep and straight rock formation I had ever seen, and made for an incredible yet equally frightening feeling. There was no railings along the ridge, and to fall off the edge would be instant death. Nonetheless we still took many photos and got as close as we could to the ledge. My dad and I climbed up a very large boulder nearby which made for some different views. We spent some time overlooking and enjoying the incredible sight that stood before us. The heat was not as bad as Vegas, but was still a hot one in the 90s. We took our time on the upward return trek to the parking lot. 

I once again volunteered to drive the return trip, which was once again loaded with unique obstacles. Aside from the twisting mountainous roads, we got hit by a very strong storm as we approached Flagstaff. The city was once again overrun by mudslides and road-blocks. I was able to once again navigate us thru the road-blocks however we could not reach the hotel due to traffic, and decided to park in the plaza next to it. Afterwards Gabriel and I walked to a nearby Chinese restaurant to pick up food for everyone. That evening we walked around Flagstaff for a bit, but the rain was an issue. Afterwards we relaxed at the hotel, drank some beers, and watched the Gold Cup on TV.

Day 4: Williams and Sedona, AZ

The next day after some continental breakfast we skeptically planned to visit a wild-life park named Bearizona. The park was like a unique zoo that mixed a drive thru experience with a walk-thru experience. The first stage was the drive thru park where we saw bears, wolves, bison, and various other animals in their natural habitats. We actually got very close to the wild bears in our car, which was very cool, and reminded me of that scene in Jurassic Park. The 2nd stage was a walk-thru which was more like your typical zoo with unique exhibits. Here we saw basic zoo animals with some very cool exhibits of brown bears and a beautiful black panther. I learned right then and there that panthers are actually jaguars with different skin pigment. All-in-all it was an enjoyable visit and I bought some souvenirs when we were finished.

That afternoon we visited the city of Williams, which was renowned for it's Grand Canyon Railway yet more-so it's location at the heart of the iconic Route 66 highway. The city was a hot-spot during the olden days along the main road to-and-from the west. It was now loaded with souvenir shops, bars, and restaurants. We found a nice diner restaurant and sat outside overlooking all the activity. I treated my mom to some beef ribs (that were slightly burnt but still tasty). Our waitress was very friendly with us and with the setting it was a very enjoyable lunch. We returned to the hotel by around 2 or 3ish and rested for a bit, unsure what to do next. That was until our receptionist convinced my dad to visit Sedona. 

So after a little bit of rest we climbed back in the van for a 3rd activity that day to the city of Sedona. This time my dad did the driving and it consisted of some very challenging twists and turns up-and-down the mountains. We decided to pull off at a park, which was pricey but a great discovery along the river. The area was loaded with people swimming in the creek along the rocks, and it was such a cool place. However the rain was really pouring at the time, and our visit there had to be cut short. We returned to the car and continued into the city of Sedona, which just like Williams was a busy tourist strip. The main street was loaded with shops, restaurants, and bars while the view of the distant mountains and cliffs were astonishing. It made for a very impressive sight, and I decided to buy a t-shirt there. 

We returned from Sedona that evening and decided to eat dinner downtown in Flagstaff. We walked around town for a bit, however the Indian restaurant my mom wanted was closed, so we find another one slightly outside of town. I ordered an IPA beer with the butter chicken, and requested it be the top level of spiciness. It was tasty with a bit of a kick, and I was only able to eat half of it (more-so because I was still full from lunch). Afterwards we returned to the hotel, had a couple more beers, and watched the Gold Cup before bed.

Day 5: Grand Canyon National Park

We had considered the train ride all along, but were unsure what exactly it entailed. I for one thought it would take us near the canyon, but after some research it was only a trip to the canyon. However the real sell of the Grand Canyon Railway (located at Williams) was the interactive entertainment it provided. So we all agreed to buy the 80$ tickets that would give us a guided journey of history and entertainment. Our train was scheduled to leave Williams at 10:30am, so we arrived early to catch the opening western shown. While the cowboy actors were good, the story was fairly weak and it was hard to hear them speak. The story ended in a typical sheriff/bandit shootout in the town center. After the 15-min show was over we then boarded our train. 

Onboard the train, each coach had it's own tour guide, ours was a friendly old patriot named Jerry who had was a natural talker. We were also treated to some musical entertainment, mostly folk songs. The train did not get over 40 miles an hour, but still made for an enjoyable experience as we got closer to the park. Once we arrived, we were allowed 3 hours to tour the park before the train departed at 4:30pm. After we got off the train, we had to take some stairs upward, until finally there stood before us the incredible Grand Canyon. It was an unreal sight almost like something out of a fantasy world such as Zelda's Hyrule. Layers and layers of rocks, mountains, craters, and ledges. From our central view at the southern rim we could not even see the river down below. 

We decided to first hike westward along the rim until we got to the Bright Angel Trailhead. Here we were able to descend a winding path, which was a 9-mile downward route to the river. Unfortunately since we were pressed for time, we only went about half-a-mile before we turned around. I then treated everyone to some hot dogs and veggie burgers at a food truck. Afterwards we walked eastward for a bit along the rim, taking as many pictures as we could. It truly felt like we were on top of the world, looking out into some sort of heavenly world. It was an experience I wish could last a life-time, and truly hope to see again with more free time.

Our return trip on the train, was also quite eventful. After some musical entertainment and an interactive train robbery (via the cowboy actors) our train experienced some mechanical difficulties. For nearly 45 minutes we lost power and were at a stand still, maybe 10 miles outside of our destination at Williams. Finally the problem was fixed and we were glad to finally get back to Flagstaff. Despite this hiccup, the train ride was still worth the money and a great way to take on some of the local culture. That evening we had leftover Chinese and Indian food for dinner and went to bed early. The next morning my dad drove Andres and I to the airport. Each day of the vacation was very memorable, enjoyable, and action-packed experience. It was more than just a vacation, rather an adventure in a far off western land that I will never forget.