Historical Study: The Great Plains War

After returning from my trip out west, I now naturally find myself fascinated with western culture and history. I have begun watching the HBO series, Deadwood and intend to buy the popular western video game, Red Dead Redemption. Western culture has become it's own genre now, with the cliché cowboys, Indians, saloons, shoot-outs, and such. This is certainty not the first time I have emerged myself into a western appreciation phase. It seems every year I get into some sort of Civil War/western appreciation usually around fall time. I have written several times now on topics concerning the Old West; (see The Old West, Removal of Native Americans.) 

Last summer I actually was in a brief Native American phase while playing the video game Assassin's Creed 3 (set during the American Revolution). My studies focused more on the origins of the Native Americans, their role in the American Revolution, and their eventual expulsion via the Removal Act of 1830. However I ended my studies there and did not get into the American-Indian wars out west. By around the time of the Civil War, most Native American strongholds were west of the Mississippi River and the resistance had grown quite strong at this point. Most native tribes knew the American "white man" was there to stay and conquer their land. The movie Dances With Wolves really depicts the western struggle of the time.   

While there were many American-Indian skirmishes and battles in the west, I'm going to focus primarily on one region, the Great Plains of Dakota. This was the region of strong resistance from the Sioux tribes (Lakota, Dakota, and Cheyenne) and resulted in several infamous wars and massacres in the region. I just learned some of this after watching the film Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee (which is based off a popular book about the event). I felt very intrigued by the movie and felt the urge to dive deeper into the controversial topic. So in this post I'd like to understand the Sioux tribes and leaders of the Dakota/Black Hills region. I'd also like to understand the Americans' efforts at diplomacy, and further understand the Ghost Movement that lead to violent reaction. 

Dakota Wars

Western migration began to really boom in the 1840s via the Oregon Trail and the gold rush of 1849. However these expeditions were frequently attacked by native tribes, who naturally felt their land was under threat. In an effort to establish peaceful relations, the Americans compromised with the local natives in the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851). This essentially gave the local natives a reserved region in the Black Hills region of South Dakota. The Indians (which included the Cheyenne and the Sioux) agreed to no longer attack white migrants. Despite this agreement however, the natives felt their territorial and financial dues were not fully paid and thus continued to attack the settlers. 

The attacks throughout the Minnesota and Dakota region eventually hit a boiling point in August of 1862, that caused the American military to get involved. The Dakota War of 1862 was a very brief one (as most American-Indian wars are), and resulted in the surrender of the Dakota insurgents by late September. After various trials were held, 38 Dakotas were mass executed in a single day (the largest single day mass execution in American History). The result of the war exiled the remaining Dakotas out of Minnesota and further west into their allotted reserved territory in South Dakota. 

During the Civil War, it's well documented that the majority of Natives supported the southern confederate states in hopes of better liberties. However just like during the French and Indian Wars and the American Revolution the Natives were once again on the losing side. Following the Civil War, conflicts and skirmishes continued to intensify throughout the Great Plain territory. Union Gen Philip Sheridan was given command to neutralize the Great Plain region and appointed Gen George Custer to command the 7th infantry. These campaigns however only lead to further native massacres and bloodshed such as the Sand Creek Massacre of 1864, Red Cloud's War in 1866, the Washita Massacre of 1868, and the Marias Massacre of 1870. 

Great Sioux War of 1876

Despite their defeat at Red Cloud's War the Lakotas continued to strongly resist western occupation of the Dakota territory. They were lead by strong war leaders such as Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, and the famous Sitting Bull. The tension reached another tipping point in 1875 when a gold rush had reached the Black Hill territory. In a diplomatic effort the US government, offered to buy the reserved land they had given the Dakota and Sioux natives and relocate them further west. The native tribes did not agree to this offer however and refused to leave their territory in the Black Hills. In response to this Gen Custer attacked the Lakota stronghold at the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876. 

The Battle of Little Bighorn began the Great Sioux War and is one of the most famous American-Indian battles for two reasons; it was a rare victory for the Indians yet more so was the heroic last stance of Gen Custard. Fought in the Montana territory, the Lakota tribes were lead to victory by Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull. Gen Custer's fatal mistake was dividing his army into 3 battalions with no knowledge of how large the force he was fighting. Given the hilly terrain the Indians were able to hide their numbers and managed to surround Gen Custer on a hill. Completely outnumbered Gen Custer and his battalion fought to their deaths on the hillside. While it was a major defeat for the Americans it also became a rallying cry for more military engagement. 

Following this shocking defeat, the American military intensified their campaigns throughout the region and were quickly able to subdue the resistant Lakota and Dakota tribes. The Great Sioux War ended with the Agreement of 1877 which made all of the Indian territory official American annexations. The Sioux were still granted reserved territory, however their way of life was now at a major turning point. They could either chose to assimilate with the American culture or continue to stubbornly resist (despite the impossible odds). I can only imagine this fork in the road, and the utter dilemma of choosing to support the enemy or support a dying way of life. 

Ghost Dance Movement

After years of depressive assimilation and rising alcoholism the natives found some brief solace during the Ghost Dance Movement of 1889. This fascinating spiritual practice incorporated traditional native round dances with new philosophical beliefs of recalling the dead spirits. This concept was made popular throughout the west by Paiute religious leader, Jack Wilson also known as the Prophet Wovoka. He shared his vision in which this spiritual dance would call upon the spirits of the dead to fight against western expansionism and unite the native tribes. This movement brought many natives an optimistic return to their heritage, amidst the struggles of assimilating.  

However the American government quickly felt threatened by this sudden spark of Indian unity. The movement was even supported by their heroic war leader, Sitting Bull. American military outposts began to fear this was a precursor to revamped Indian aggression. I suppose it's no different than the police brutality that occurred during the hippie counter-culture years. The establishment felt they had to quickly end what could become a launching pad for a new conflict, and thus they engaged in a preemptive strike. 

Massacre of Wounded Knee

The first major strike came with the murder of Sitting Bull on Dec 14th of 1890. He was shot in the head by local authorities after refusing to comply and end the Ghost Dance movement. This of course only heightened the Lakota's hostility and lead to the infamous Massacre of Wounded Knee. The American Army had arrived to the Wounded Knee Indian Reserve in the Black Hills of South Dakota to neutralize the encampment. Their intentions were to disarm the entire encampment in what they feared was a stronghold of the Ghost Dance Movement. However the local natives did not take well to handing over their arms, and soon the hostility escalated. 

The Massacre occurred on a snowy Dec 29th, 1890 in what was to become the deadliest massacre in American history. It began as a standoff in which the young Lakota warrior, Black Coyote refused to hand over his rifle. This lead to a scuffle that caused his rifle to discharge, however there is speculation as to who pulled the trigger. The discharging rifle lead to an instantaneous gun-fight between the two sides at short range. The American army had the clear advantage in the shoot-out with better guns and experience. However following the shoot-out, chaos erupted all throughout the camp and American soldiers began acting without orders. In fear of their own safety American soldiers began slaughtering the men, women, and children of the encampment. 

The entire event maybe lasted an hour with casualties mounting from 150-300. 25 of these included American soldiers, but the rest were Lakota Indians. This massacre quickly brought public support to the native's struggle who felt it was an unjust use of force. In an effort to quell and repair the situation, the government granted the natives more funds and land reserves. By this point the Ghost Dance movement had lost it's traction and the Sioux people continued onward with their assimilation into American society. To this day the Black Hills region is loaded with historical monuments to their Native leaders. This is an area I would love to explore someday.