History of Space Exploration

Last Monday we had a very rare solar eclipse, in which the sun was completely blocked the moon and it was dark for over 3 minutes. While partial solar eclipses are quite common this was the first total solar eclipse in North America since 1979. We were quite lucky to be in the direct path of totality in the town of Zionsville. My parents came to witness the historical event, and the four of us (Andres included) watched the whole event unfold in my backyard. I can honestly say that the moment lived up to the hype and it was such a surreal experience. 

The only way to see the moon covering the sun was with special glasses. This began at about 2pm and the whole process took about 2 hours from the covering to the uncovering. As it approached totality there was such a unique twilight in the sky, like a mixture of evening and sunrise. Totality occurred at around 3:06 pm and it was one of the most amazing sights I had ever seen. I had anticipated the darkness but not the circular ring of light known as a "corona". It was like something out of a sci-fi movie, as the sun's glare could be seen behind the moon. For that brief moment everything seemed supernatural, and everyone (including the birds) were in sheer amazement of this once-in-a-lifetime experience. A few minutes after it ended and we were all back to our daily business.

The moment has stuck with me for some days now and has brought on a rather unexpected inspiration into space. I've always been quite fascinated with the night sky and the stars that are thousands of lightyears away. Maybe it began with Star Wars or just my creative imagination but space has always been an intriguing topic. I dove deep into space studies in 2012, watching various documentaries about galaxies, black holes, supernovas, wormholes, dark matter, and all the fascinating mystery still around it (see Study of Cosmology, Study of Astronomy, Study of Astrophysics). What's especially interesting is that this is all mostly theory and we're just barely grasping at the surface. But that's what I want to focus on here. Not our theoretical breakthroughs (such as relativity or nuclear fusion) but rather our physical breakthroughs in regards to space exploration (such as satellites, probes, moon-landings, rovers, space-stations, and beyond). 

The Space Race Begins

I had thought my Cold War phase was primarily focused on the Nuclear Arms race and I was ready to move on, that is until the eclipse happened. So once again I found myself drawn back to the 1950s where the Space Race had also begun to gain steam within this cold war. Sadly this sudden desire to explore space was not driven by a scientific urge, yet rather a political rivalry between the US and the Soviet Union. In a new booming age of technology space presented a significant tactical position in regards to communication, information, and especially weaponization. It was simply a desire for both sides to have the upper advantage in the case of war. 

There were major scientific breakthroughs as far back as the 1600s that had begun to lay the groundwork for space exploration (such as theories by Galileo and Isaac Newton) as well as constant improvements to the telescope throughout the 1700-1800s. In 1944 humanity made it's first breakthrough into outer space when Nazi Germany launched the first ever ever man-made V-2 rocket to leave the earth's atmosphere. While there were some significant rocket launches and animal experiments after this it was not until 1957 that the Space Race truly began. This was when the Soviet Union launched the first ever satellite into orbit, Sputnik. 

The Sputnik satellite was a breakthrough in space exploration, because it could now provide data from outer space and relay it back to earth. It's primary purpose was to analyze the density of the atmosphere and send radio signals back to the Soviets. This however caused a great fear among Eisenhower who felt that the Soviet Union had surpassed them scientifically and this could be used militarily if they did not catch up. Thus a year later in 1958 NASA (the National Aeronautics and Space Administration) was founded not so much to explore space but to be able to compete with the Soviet Union. Some of NASA's earliest goals were to send satellites into orbit and eventually put humans in space. 

In April of 1961 however the Soviet Union once again beat the United State to another major milestone by putting the first human into outer space. The pilot Yuri Gagarin became the first ever human in outer space onboard the Vostok spacecraft which did a full 108-minute orbit around earth and then back. Yuri Gagarin became a national hero and inspired several more successful Soviet launches in their Vostok Program. In response to this NASA kicked off their Mercury program to also send humans into space. This included Alan Shepard in May of 1961 and John Glenn in Feb of 1962. 

Gemini Missions

By the early 1960s it seemed the Soviets had the clear lead in the Space Race (by putting the first man into orbit), the Nuclear Race (by creating the worlds largest hydrogen bomb), and arguably the Cold War in general (following America's humiliating failure at the Bay of Pigs Invasion). However President Kennedy brought a breath of fresh air into American ambition and sought to rewrite the script. He thus decided to put heavy funding into the NASA program and gave a famous public speech about his desire to land on the moon before 1970. Unfortunately Kennedy would not live much longer to see this dream played out, however he laid out the groundworks of this mission to the moon.

The first phase was to continue to push the barriers of human's reach into outer space (after all the moon is 238,900 miles away from our atmosphere). This brought about the Gemini Project which sought to develop a spacecraft and a crew to fly further into space. In response to this the Soviets began their Voskhod Program and once again beat the Americans to two more milestones. First by launching the first multi-person spacecraft in October of 1964, then by performing the first ever spacewalk (outside of the craft) in March of 1965. However the Soviet Voskhod Porgram only had two missions while the Gemini Project launched ten missions.    

• Gemini 1: Was the first uncrewed test flight of the Gemini spacecraft, launched on April 8th of 1964 it performed 63 orbits. 
• Gemini 2: Another unmanned test flight that launched on Jan 19th, 1965. The main purpose of this was not to orbit the earth, but rather to test the craft's return to earth thru it's heat shield. 
• Gemini 3: Was the first American multi-person spacecraft launched in March 23rd of 1965. Astronauts Gus Grissom and John Young completed three orbits around earth in almost 5 hours before returning. 
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  Gemini 4: Astronauts James McDivitt and Ed White circled the Earth 66 times and Ed White made the first American spacewalk. 
• Gemini 5: This mission was for duration and set the world record at nearly 8 days in outer space.
• Gemini 6 and 7: Were multiple spacecraft missions that were able to rendezvous in space. Both crafts were able to communicate with one another and come as close as 1 foot apart. 
• Gemini 8: Was intended to be a docking of two spacecrafts, however was aborted due to technical difficulties. This was Neil Armstrong's first flight into space.
• Gemini 9: Was another failed attempt to dock two spacecrafts and aborted.
• Gemini 10: Finally succeeded in docking two spacecrafts, and transferring an astronaut from one to another. Michael Collins became the first person to complete this transfer. 
• Gemini 11: Was continued experiments with the rendezvous and docking of two spacecrafts, as well as longer spacewalk duration.
• Gemini 12: The final Gemini mission continued to practice space rendezvous and was the debut for Buzz Aldrin.
  

Apollo Missions

By 1967 it had become quite clear that the United States had surpassed the Soviet Union in the space race. Although the Soviet Union reached major milestones first (such as first man in orbit, first multi-person spacecraft, and first spacewalk) the United States performed far more successful missions in space. Furthermore the Soviet's experienced the first human fatality in space in April of 1967 when Vladimir Komarov was killed during the descent due to a parachute failure. Although there were secretive plans, the Soviet Lunar Program never really took off after the brief Soyuz failure. Soon it became a one man show for the United States Apollo Mission to achieve Kennedy's dream of reaching the moon before 1970. 

• Apollo 1: This was planned to be the first launch of the Apollo spacecraft, however the entire crew was killed by a cabin fire during a launch rehearsal on Feb 21st, 1967. This included Gus Grissom, Roger Chaffee, and Ed White (the first American to walk in space).
• Apollo 4: Debuted the new Saturn 5 Launch rocket which propelled the Apollo space shuttle into it's first un-crewed space orbit for 8 hours.
• Apollo 5: Was another unmanned space launch to test the launch sequence with the Apollo Lunar Module that would transport the astronauts to the moon. 
• Apollo 6: Was the third unmanned rocket launch of the Saturn 5. While the launch was successful the trip was cut short due to some technical difficulties.
• Apollo 7: Was the first crewed flight onboard the Apollo spacecraft, launched on October 11th, 1968. Although the craft did not journey to the moon, it was a successful launch, completed 163 orbits around the earth, for 10 days, and a successful return. It also demonstrated the first ever television broadcast in space.
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  Apollo 8: Launching on Dec 21st, 1968, this was the first manned spacecraft to leave the earth's orbit and perform a flyby of the moon. It took 68 hours (approx 3 days) for the Apollo spacecraft to travel from Earth to the moon. The spacecraft then orbited the moon 3 times before successfully returning home.   
• Apollo 9: Was yet another manned flight to the moon, that began to test the necessary procedures to perform the lunar docking in the earth's orbit, and the undocking in the moon's orbit. 
• Apollo 10: This was the complete dress rehearsal of all systems and procedures without actually landing on the moon.  
  
• Apollo 11: This was finally the ultimate achievement of the space race, the first successful human landing on the moon. Launched on July 12th of 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first humans to walk on the surface of the moon. Neil's words of "the first step of man, and a giant leap for mankind" became broadcast all across the world. The astronauts were welcomed back as heroes.    
• Apollo 12: Was the 2nd successful human landing on the moon by astronauts Pete Conrad and Alan Bean in Nov 19th of 1969. Of which they were able to spend more time and perform more experiments on the moon's surface.
• Apollo 13: Was an infamous lunar malfunction where the crew had to abort their mission and just barely return to Earth. The malfunction was caused by a leak in the craft's oxygen tanks, which made the crew's return to earth very challenging with minimal electricity and oxygen. The mission is especially made famous by Tom Hanks film portrayal.
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  Apollo 14: Was postponed a couple years due to the system investigations of Apollo 13. Finally in Jan 1971 this became the 3rd successful landing on the moon by astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell. 94 pounds of moon rocks were collected to return and study back on Earth.
• Apollo 15: Was the fourth successful landing on the moon in August of 1971. David Scott and James Irwin explored further then ever on the newly created moon rover vehicle. They spent a total of 18 hours on the moon's surface. 
  
• Apollo 16: Was the fifth successful landing on the moon in April of 1972 by astronauts John Young and Charles Duke. Both astronauts explored the moon's surface for a duration of 71 hours before returning home successfully.
• Apollo 17: Was the sixth and final human landing on the moon to occur in December of 1972. Astronauts Gene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt became the last humans to walk on the moon and set several records including the largest lunar sample and the longest orbit around the moon at 6 days. 

Space Stations

Once the United States had landed on the moon the Space Race was essentially over. Funding for both Soviet and American space programs were significantly reduced. Knowing they had lost the race to the moon, the Soviets began to focus more on space stations and exploring Mars. They initiated their Salyut program in 1971 to develop space stations that could orbit the earth for long durations which was ideal for space research. They deployed 7 space stations from 1971 to 1982 that broke all sorts of duration records. The United States also had a space station program in the 1970s known as Skylab but it was eventually merged into the Soviet's model. 

By the 1980s the Soviets expanded their Salyut model into a modular craft with various arms and segments. This offered more space for logistics, experimentations, as well as docking and fueling operations. The first modular station known as Mir was sent into orbit in 1986. It's purpose was to collect scientific data vital for colonizing space. It stayed in space for nearly 15 years, and was later replaced by the International Space Station in 1998. The ISS still functions to this day as a collaboration of five major space organizations; NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada).

Space Probes and Telescopes

By early 1960s solar probes had been developed as a similar concept to satellites however with the intention to leave the earth's orbit and explore further into space. The first successful solar probe was the Pioneer 5, deployed in 1960 it journeyed for 22.6 million miles for 107 days before it lost contact with earth. In 1971 the Mariner 9 became the first probe to reach Mars. In 1973 the Pioneer 10 became the first probe to reach Jupiter, Venus, and Mercury. In 1977 the famous Voyager 1 satellite was launched to reach Saturn, and has continued to journey deep into space ever since. It has recorded data, photos and flybys of far off planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, and the exploration of the moon Titan (the only object in space with water other than Earth). The voyager remains the most distant human spacecraft in space at approx 15 billion miles away from Earth. The voyager 2 has achieved similar depths by reaching Uranus and Neptune.      

Space telescopes gather a cleaner image of space, outside the earth's atmosphere, by using mirrors to collect far off lights. The first successful space telescope was the OAO-2 launched from America in 1968. Perhaps the most iconic and powerful telescope in space is the Hubble launched into earth's orbit in 1990. It has provided many famous photos of deep space. This has recently been surpassed however by the more modern James Webb Space Telescope launched in 2021. It allows for high resolution views with the use of mirrors that are able to collect light as far back as 13 billion years ago (which dates back to the Big Bang). The images are quite breathtaking and truly demonstrate the vastness of space.  

Space Shuttle Program

After closing the book on Moon explorations NASA focused primarily on research missions during it's Space Shuttle Program (from 1972 to 2011). They developed a newer and stronger spacecraft known as the orbiter that could hold up to eight astronauts, heavier cargo loads, and re-enter the earth's atmosphere. The purpose of these missions were usually for experimental, logistical, or technical repairs within the International Space Station, the Hubble Telescope, or various other satellites. There were six designs created during the tenure of it's program which completed 135 missions. Two of the space shuttles ended in terrible tragic explosions.

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  Enterprise: Completed in 1976, it was the first prototype design of the orbiter space shuttle. It was built primarily for testing purposes, using parts from a Boeing Airplane. The designed craft never left space however it opened the door for it's predecessor.
• Colombia: Made it's first flight in 1981 and completed 28 missions during it's tenure mostly. It is however most known for it's tragic disaster in 2003 that killed all 7 astronauts onboard. The failure occurred during reentry into the atmosphere when the heat shields were penetrated causing a fatal explosion.  
• Challenger: Made it's debut flight in 1983 and completed a total of 10 missions. It too however is most known for it's tragic disaster in 1986 that killed all 7 astronauts onboard. The error occurred during launch when the sealed gaskets were breached which began an instant explosive reaction. Of the astronauts was a teacher, who had trained to fly as a tourist. For this reason the flight had significant media attention, and it's abrupt explosion shocked the world. 
• Discovery: Made it's debut flight in 1984 and became the primary shuttle after a 3 year hiatus following the Challenger disaster. It performed a total of 39 flights before being retired.
• Atlantis: Made it's debut flight in 1985 and completed a total of 33 flights before being retired. 
• Endeavor: Made it's debut flight in 1992 and completed a total of 25 missions in space before being retired. It made it's last space shuttle flight in 2011, bringing an end to the space shuttle program. 

Mars Missions

After conquering the moon another objective for space exploration was to reach the nearest planet of Mars. It is approximately 140 million miles from earth which takes a spacecraft about 7 months. Of all the planets in the Solar System, Mars shares the most similar characteristics with Earth due to it's distance from the sun. The Soviets first attempted to reach Mars in the early 60s to no avail. In July of 1965 NASA launched the first successful flyby of Mars, on the probe Mariner 4. A few years later in 1971 they launched the Mariner 9 to become the first probe in orbit. The Soviets finally achieved some success and yet another major milestone when they launched the first successful probe to reach the surface of Mars in May of 1971. 

In the 1970s NASA launched several more successful probes to perform flybys and even orbit the planet of Mars. The probe Viking 1, became the first successful lander on the surface of Mars and provided the first ever photos. Unlike the moon surrounded by the darkness of space, Mars actually has an atmosphere which portrays it's red rocky geography. It looks like a giant red barren desert of rocks, craters, and mountains with no indication of life, water, or plants. But there is belief that there once might have been life, and may still be possible to inhabit due to the vapor within it's atmosphere, and its large rocks of ice. The planet also has a similar climate to Earth with clouds, wind, seasons, and temperatures ranging from 70 degrees to negative 225 degrees Fahrenheit (at certain locations, seasons, and time of day). While the planet looks like a warm desert it is actually quite colder then earth due to it's further distance from the sun. 

By the mid 1990s NASA was able to collect even better data from Mars, when it launched it's successful Pathfinder missions. The Sojourner robotic rover was able to explore and communicate with Earth for 85 days. In 2004 NASA sent twin rovers the Spirt and Opportunity to further explore the topography of the planet. Both crafts significantly outlasted their predecessor and provided substantial data back to Earth. The Spirit broke down in a sand dune in 2010, while the Opportunity explored Mars for nearly 15 years until it broke down due to a sandstorm in 2018. In 2011 NASA launched it's largest rover to date, the car-sized Opportunity which is still operational to this day. The Perseverance was launched in 2020, also as a car-sized rover that still operates on the surface of Mars today.     

Artemis and Future Missions

In 2017 NASA kicked off a new project to return to the moon with an intent to colonize it. The Artemis Program marked a 50 year gap from which mankind had last explored the moon's surface. It debuted a newly designed space launch system as well as a fairly new space capsule known as the Orion. This program is especially of interest to me as my brother has helped design some mechanical parts for the spacecraft. The goal is to establish a long term base on the moon which can be used to further examine outer space as well as continued expeditions to the planet Mars. 

• Artemis 1: The first phase successfully launched and performed a crewless flyby in 2022. This was the debut of the new Space Launch System. 
• Artemis 2: The next mission will launch on September of 2025 as a 4-person flyby of the moon. 
• Artemis 3: Scheduled for September 2026 as a 4-person landing on the moon (the first since 1972)
• Artemis 4: Scheduled for September 2028 as a 4-person landing on the moon to deliver a Habitation Module that will be a part of the Lunar Gateway station.
• Artemis 5: Scheduled for March 2030 as a lunar landing that will deliver the lunar vehicle as well as the ESPRIT (European System Providing Refueling, Infrastructure, and Telecommunications) module that will connect to the Lunar Gateway. 
• Artemis 6: Scheduled for March 2031 as a lunar landing that will deliver the Crew and Science Airlock.
• Artemis 7: Scheduled for March 2032 this lunar landing will begin the lunar outpost assembly and the delivery of the Lunar Cruiser.  
• Artemis 8: Scheduled for 2033, this lunar landing will deploy the foundation of the Surface Habitat and it's logistics
• Artemis 9: Scheduled for 2034, this lunar landing will deploy more items and logistics to the Surface Habitat.
• Artemis 10: Scheduled for 2035, this lunar landing will deploy more supplies to the habitat as well as a long-term stay within the base.
• Artemis 11: Scheduled for 2036, this lunar landing will deliver more supplies as well as a personnel shift change

Other future exploration initiatives range from civilian flights, further space research, and even colonization (such as on the Moon or in Mars). There is still much to discover about our neighbor planets in the Solar System, such as Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn, Venus, Uranus, and Pluto. Our furthest dwarf planet of Pluto would take approx 10 years to reach onboard our current spacecraft designs. The options are quite limited for deep space exploration, considering the nearest star of Proxima Centauri is 4.5 light years away (which would take approx 63,000 years to reach with our current technology). I think our best bet of truly reaching outer space is only by sight, thru impressive telescopes such as the James Webb and beyond. 

History of Nuclear Weapons

I've watched the film Oppenheimer twice now in the past week and am quite inspired by the historical content. The movie went on to win 7 Academy Awards, including for best picture, best director (Christopher Nolan), best lead actor (Cillian Murphy), and best supporting actor (Robert Downey Jr). The story gives us a biographical account of the brilliant physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, his Manhattan Project, and his legal trials concerning Communism. I won't get too much into a full review here but can say I really enjoyed the film. There's not too many movies that can dive deep into physics and scientific discoveries and somehow make it all rather exciting. I suppose however the visual effects of an atom bomb can always help draw in the masses.

What I especially enjoyed about Nolan's film was not so much the life of Oppenheimer, but rather this major discovery of nuclear fission that lead to the Manhattan Project. From then on the film moves quickly, bringing together the top scientists in the world (such as Albert Einstein) to help create this weapon. It came at such a crucial time in world history, during WWII, where whoever could create the weapon first would have the advantage. The United States feared that if they did not create the weapon, Nazi Germany would and could use it to devastating effect. So it became a race of scientific experimentation that had the potential to define the outcome of the war (and even human existence if it all went wrong). 

The Manhattan Project began the atomic race in 1942 and were finally able to create the first ever bomb with the Trinity Test in July of 1945. However at this point Nazi Germany had been defeated and Japan was barely hobbling on. Nonetheless the United States still wanted to display a show of power and decided to drop two bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (killing approx 200,000). This was more-so a demonstration directed at their new rival, the Soviet Union. Following the end of WWII, a new Cold War began between the US and the USSR, which brought on a continued race of nuclear weapon production. 

In this post I want to focus on the historical development of the nuclear weapon. To me there is just nothing quite as terrible as the devastating power of these bombs that can eliminate thousands of lives instantaneously. The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, in my opinion, were the most evil act of human history. I will try to dip into the science and the philosophy of the weapon, but this post will be more a historical and political evolution. What's most interesting to me is the global race that occurred after WWII, and the current arsenal as it stands today.

The Discovery of Nuclear Fission

The scientific breakthrough of nuclear fission occurred in 1938 in the University of Berlin, Germany. It was discovered after 40 years of radioactive experiments by a group of German chemists and physicists (Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassman, Lise Meitner, and Otto Robert Frisch). The process of nuclear fission splits atoms into two, which causes a chemical reaction of great energy. It was quickly realized that this process could create a new form of energy production and even powerful weapons. With the use of uranium, this chemical metallic element could be used as fuel to create a very powerful and deadly explosion. 

Since the discovery of nuclear fission originated in Germany, they got the head start on nuclear research. In April of 1939 the Nazi government established a research project known as Uranprojekt (Uranium Project) with a goal to utilize nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. This instantly brought on a wave of fear among other Jewish physicists, who felt the Nazis would destroy the world if they created atom bombs. 

Hungarian Physicists Leo Szilard, Edward Teller, and Eugene Wigner were able to recruit the support of the most famous physicist in the world (and fellow Jew) Albert Einsten to their cause. The Einsten-Szilard letter was written and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in August of 1939 warning that the Nazi's had the potential to create devastating new bombs by using this new process of nuclear reaction with uranium. In response to this letter FDR established an executive committee to research the use of Uranium which gave way to the Manhattan Project to be lead by JP Oppenheimer.     

The Manhattan Project

Prior to be chosen as the chief coordinator of the Manhattan Project, Oppenheimer had become a well respected innovator in the field of theoretical physics. He studied with some of the top physicists in Europe under Max Born at the prestigious University of Gottingen, Germany. From there he took on a teaching post at the University of Berkley, where he got involved in left-wing communist politics. But the theory on physics was always his passion and when the opportunity came to lead this experiment, he quickly set his controversial politics aside.  Oppenheimer was appointed by US General Leslie R. Groves to lead the research of uranium weapons. They began their research in Manhattan, NY but quickly decided to establish their laboratories in a remote location in Los Alamos, New Mexico.

The Los Alamos Laboratory was established in January of 1943 and built as a remote village for scientists to live deep in the desert. While there were various other branches of nuclear research tied to the Manhattan Project, the main one was known as Project Y with a mission to build an atom bomb. The project brought on some of the leading European physicists in the world such as Leo Szilard, Hans Bethe, Ernest Lawrence, Glenn Seaborg, Edward Tellar. The Manhattan Project also partnered and eventually absorbed the UK's uranium project (Tube Alloys). The project was one of the most costly in American history, at around 26 billion dollars, across 30 sites, and employing nearly 130,000 people.

While the uranium was collected from Congo, these top scientists deliberated on the approach of the chemical reaction. The two main theories were shooting one atom into another, or causing an implosion of the atoms. There was also experiments on nuclear fusion that could create a hydrogen bomb 1000 times more powerful than the atom bomb. This concept was brought on by Edward Tellar which was quickly discouraged as far too dangerous to dabble with. Also during the experiment were espionage reports on the Nazi's nuclear progress. It was vital for the Manhattan Project to create the atom bomb before Germany did. However the project was also infiltrated by Soviet spies, who were also beginning their development of the bomb.

On July 16th, 1945 the Manhattan Project succeeded in creating the first ever atom bomb detonation known as the Trinity Test. The bomb produced 25 kilotons of TNT, and it's flash could be seen as far as 200 miles away. The success of this bomb was quickly relayed to President Harry S. Truman who was at the Potsdam Conference meeting with Winston Churchill and Josef Stalin. Truman knew he could use this new weapon as political leverage over it's new enemy, the Soviet Union. Shortly after this successful demonstration the military exported two atom bombs from the laboratory site, The Fat Man and the Little Boy.     

The Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Following the downfall of Nazi Germany, only the Empire of Japan fought on as enemy to the Allied Powers. The Pacific War had waged on for over four years among the sea and the islands of Japan. Knowing the Japanese would not surrender, the Americans planned a full scale invasion of the mainland, known as Operation Downfall in summer of 1945. However the successful Manhattan Project changed Truman's strategy. He knew he could use this weapon as a means of shock-and-awe to force Japan to surrender, and save the lives of both American and Japanese soldiers from an mainland battle. Truman sent an ultimatum to Japan on July 26th to either surrender or face total destruction. The stubborn Japanese of course ignored the ultimatum.  

On August 6th of 1945 the American warplane, Enola Gay, dropped the first ever atom bomb on humans in Hiroshima killing over 70,000 instantly. The bomb had the force of 15 kilotons, and yet was still considered inefficient. While the target had been chosen due to it's military hub most of the causalities were civilians. The next day President Truman announced to the world that he had dropped a devastating atom bomb and would continue to do so until Japan surrendered. Japan still did not surrender and on August 9th, the US dropped it's second bomb over Japan in Nagasaki. The Fat Man bomb had more explosive power at 21 kilotons and killed over 60,000 instantly. The US had continued it's production of atomic bombs, and planned to drop more after this. However on August 15th, Japan finally surrendered thus ending WWII.

Nuclear Testing during the Cold War

After WWII several world organizations were established to help govern and maintain peace such as the United Nations and the Atomic Energy Commission. The UN quickly called for the complete elimination of atomic weapons but this was caught on death ears. The United States and the Soviet Union found themselves in a hostile race for supreme power. This brought about a new arms race unlike any before, with the main focus on the further development of the nuclear bomb. By 1946 the Manhattan Project was eventually absorbed into the US Atomic Energy Commission to continue it's nuclear testing. The first post-war American tests occurred in the newly acquired Marshall Islands, on the Bikini Atoll. This included the first ever underwater bomb, the iconic Baker bomb, which was tested with nearby warships. It remains to this day one of the most visually stunning bombs seen on video.

By 1949 the Soviet Union finally caught up to the United States and detonated it's first nuclear bomb named Fast Lightning at their Semipalatinsk test site in Kazakhstan. This became the site of over 456 nuclear detonation tests for the Soviets. Meanwhile in 1951 the US military shifted their desert test site from Los Alamos to Nevada where they detonated 928 nuclear bombs. Many of the mushroom clouds could often be seen from the Las Vegas strip. Simultaneously they conducted tests at the Marshall Islands (105 total) and dropped the first ever hydrogen bomb named Ivy Mike in 1952 (it was 500 times more powerful then the Nagasaki bomb). A couple years later they dropped their most powerful bomb ever, known as the Castle Bravo that had 17 megatons of TNT. The fallout of this was devastating with radiation that affected much of the island locals. 

By the mid 1950s many prominent scientists such as Albert Einstein and Bertrand Russell warned against the dangers of nuclear weapons. After the death of Stalin in 1953, President Eisenhower spoke against the arms race and pushed for the development of peaceful atomic energy. However the testing still continued and the Soviets established a new site at Novaya Zemlya in the far north of the Kara Sea where they oversaw 224 detonations. This included the detonation of the Tsar Bomba in 1961. It was the most powerful bomb in history with a yield of 50 megatons of TNT, and a blast (burn) radius of 60 miles. 

The nuclear war outbreak probably hit it's closest at the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. This was a 13-day hostile stand off brought on in response to America's failed "Bay of Pigs" invasion of Cuba. In response to this the Soviet Union brought warheads into Cuba which infuriated the United States. President Kennedy was finally able to cool the situation by promising they would not invade Cuba if  Nikita Krushchev withdrew their warheads. Kennedy also settled this nuclear tension in 1963 by signing a deal with Krushchev to ban nuclear tests in space and underwater. Furthermore the American Atomic Energy Commission came under fire and was eventually disbanded in 1975 and absorbed by the international Atomic Energy Agency.     

The Modern Nuclear Age

By the 1970s nuclear tests significantly slowed due to further international protests and policies against their use. However as the tension between the Soviet Union and the United States began to simmer other nations had also begun to develop nuclear warheads. This first included the UK, then China, France, India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel. In 1968 the Non-Proliferation Treaty was signed by world leaders as an effort to begin nuclear disarmament. This allowed only 5 nations that had already developed and tested the weapons to possess them; the United States, Russia, China, the UK, and France. However India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel still developed them nonetheless counter to international law.

In 1987 President Ronald Reagan furthered the disarmament of nuclear warheads by signing the Intermediate-range missile ban with Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev to disallow long-range nuclear missiles. However this treaty was recently cancelled by President Trump in 2019 due to growing tensions with Russia and China. By 1990 the Cold War had finally come to an end, bringing in an end to the American-Soviet arms race. The nuclear testing and build-up has thus continued to diminish ever-since. In 2010 President Obama signed a significant treaty with Russian president Dimitri Medvedev to reduce half of their warhead stockpiles. 

Despite the past 30 years of cooling tension, it appears things are heating up once again with current events. Russian president Vladimir Putin has openly aligned himself against the western powers with his war in Ukraine (which began in 2022 and still goes on). Furthermore the nuclear powers of China and North Korea have supported Russia's cause. For the first time since the 1960s, nuclear weapons have returned to the forefront of fear mongering. Putin has openly declared that he would use his warheads if the west intervenes in their invasion of Ukraine. This is no doubt a rather alarming time, quite similar to the Cuban Missile Crisis. One can only hope not to experience the sudden cataclysmic abrupt ending brought on from a nuclear explosion. As was the sad case for the people of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. 

Book Review: Crime and Punishment

I just spent the past few weeks reading the classic novel of Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky written in 1866. To my surprise I was actually able to follow along pretty well with the book. Sometimes with older works of literature I find it much more challenging to comprehend the details. This was especially the case when I read War and Peace or David Copperfield immense books loaded with far too much detail. Crime and Punishment was the perfect length at around 450 pages and kept my attention throughout the whole book. I found it to be a very enjoyable read, rather on the dark side, but still such an original plot, unlike any I had read before.

As I mentioned in my previous post on the biography of Fyodor Dostoevsky, I first learned of this classic novel from the show Lost. I later came to better understand it's significance throughout my various phases of Russian culture appreciation. The novel of Crime and Punishment stands at the precipice of great Russian Literature, alongside Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace. I briefly studied the book in my post regarding the top 100 works of literature. I came to better understand the plot by watching the BBC series produced in 2002 starring John Simm as Raskolnikov and Ian McDiarmid playing the Detective Porfiry. I truly enjoyed the show, not only for it's production, but it's depiction of 1860s St. Petersburg Russia. 

I bought the book a few years ago and was just waiting for the right time to finally take it on. I knew it would be a rather dark and scandalous book as it pertains to an insane person who has just committed a murder. But I feel that I am mature enough to look beyond that and see it more as a study of psychology. Dostoevsky creates a masterpiece here, by taking us inside the mind of his protagonist Raskolnikov as he struggles with his conscious throughout the book. This book was one of the earliest examples of a psychological fiction that no doubt inspired other works and films such as the Black Swan or anything by Alfred Hitchcock. 

The Plot

The book is set in the booming city of St. Petersburg 1866, where the main character Rodion Raskolnikov is a recent college drop-out and living in poverty. He is a very intelligent recluse, maybe even a genius, however lacks any direction or ambition. He is suddenly overwhelmed with a dark urge to murder the local pawnbroker. She is an elderly woman, who is often quite nasty to him and gives him very low prices for his items. Raskolnikov convinces himself that she is of no value to society, and he can steal from her to improve his contributions to society. 

Raskolnikov is able to set aside these urges when he meets a drunken official named Marmeladov who shares his life story with him, including that of his daughter Sonia who must work as a prostitute to help provide for the impoverished family. He later receives a letter from his mother, that his sister Dounia is going to marry a wealthy suitor, who can help support them. Raskolnikov is especially frustrated by this news, that his sister must marry for wealth to help support him and his mother. He is once again overcome by his dark urge and hides an axe within his coat. He visits the pawnbroker once again and kills her with the blunt-end of the axe. He then must also kill her sister, who catches him at the scene of the crime. In a state of total distress Raskolnikov is only able to collect a small portion of the pawnbroker's wealth before fleeing.

From this point on Raskolnikov descends into further depression, illness, and sheer madness. He is further shocked when he is summoned to the police station without knowing why. At the police station he is extremely pale and nervous as he approaches the front desk to find the reason for his summoning. He is quite relieved to discover it is only due to the landlady's complaints for rent. However he later here's conversation of the recent murder of the pawnbroker and this causes him to faint. The police grow quite suspicious of his behavior but eventually let him leave the station once he has recovered. 

Raskolnikov is later comforted by his old college friend Razumikhin who also brings a medical student Zosimov to offer him some treatment. He is then visited by his sister's new suitor named Luzhin, of which Raskolnikov takes an instant disliking towards and kicks him out. Raskolnikov then leaves his apartment aimlessly and wanders into a tavern where he encounters an officer that saw him faint at the police station. At this point Raskolnikov begins to mock and test the police's knowledge of the crime, even offering himself as a potential suspect. The police officer dismisses him as a drunken college kid. Raskolnikov however continues to play with fire, and visits the scene of the crime. Here he continues to push his guilty conscious as he tells the workers nearby to join him as he confesses to the police station. Before he can go on with this however, he witnesses Marmeladov crushed by a carriage in the street. 

Raskolnikov is suddenly awoken from his mad rage and helps assist Marmeladov's return to his family. It is however too late for Marmeladov and his family mourns his death. In a great act of charity Raskolnikov gives all his money to his wife, Katerina Ivanova to help take care of the children. Sonia also witnesses this act of kindness and takes to liking him. Raskolnikov finally returns back to his apartment quite late and exhausted and is shocked to discover his mother and sister awaiting him there. They are overjoyed to see him for this first time in 3 years, however Raskolnikov cannot deal with anymore stress and collapses into a faint. His friend Razumkihin calms the mother and sister after witnessing this.

The next day Raskolnikov is a bit more rested and able to converse with his mother and sister. They show him a letter from Luzhin, that clearly requests that Raskolnikov not be present at their dinner. Dounia wants her brother to be there, and he also agrees that he will join her and help confront him on this matter of dislike. After this Sonia arrives to ask if he will attend her father's funeral. Raskolnikov agrees that he will and it becomes clear that he is quite taken with Sonia. His mother on the other hand finds it offensive that her son is in love with a prostitute and considers it an explanation for his recent strange behavior. 

After all this, Razumkihin takes Raskolnikov to meet his cousin who happens to be the detective Porifry Petrovich. Raskolnikov is quickly bothered by Porifry's witty remarks and subtle insinuations directed at Raskolnikov regarding the murder. He even describes an article published by Raskolnikov which essentially claims that there are extraordinary geniuses such as Napoleon who are able to get away with crime. Porifry plays with Raskolnikov's theory and even wonders if Raskolnikov thinks himself as one of these extraordinary people who can commit a crime without punishment. They are eventually able to part ways but Porifry requests to speak with him again, which only increases Raskolnikov's suspicious that the police are on to him.

Raskolnikov continues to descend into further fear, guilt, and madness and has nightmares about those he killed. He is then visited by a mysterious stranger named Svidrigailov, who was a former employer of Dounia. Svidrigailov shares his story pertaining to the death of his wife, his infatuation with Dounia, and his dislike of Luzhin. Svidrigailov even offers Raskolnikov money to give to his sister, however Raskolnikov refuses and parts ways with the strange man. He later meets with his mother and sister at the planned dinner with Luzhin to share this alarming detail. After that the group openly discusses the conflict between Raskolnikov and Luzhin, of which Luzhin declares that he has been offended and agrees to call off the marriage. After all this excitement Raskolnikov shockingly tells his mother and sister that this will be the last time they see him and it's best to forget him.

After this Raskolnikov visits Sonia, who he has come to like, yet acts delirious and even frightens her with many questions. He forces her to read the bible, particularly the story of Lazarus, and he is impressed with her devotion to God. He later discovers that she was friends with the pawnbrokers sister, whom he murdered. Raskolnikov shares his love for her, and tells her that the two must share their misery together. He also tells her he will return the next day to tell her who killed the pawnbroker and her sister. After his meeting with Sonia, he goes to revisit the detective Porifry for further questioning. Once again the two dance around the crime details, but it becomes all the more clear that Porifry knows he is guilty, however is pushing for a confession. Once again Raskolnikov holds his nerve and tells Porifry if he does not have any evidence or accusations to allow him to leave. 

The next day Raskolnikov attends the funeral of Marmeladov and the lavish banquet that follows. The hostess and widow Katerina Ivanova is a drunken emotional state throughout the event. The drama grows worse when Luzhin arrives and accuses Sonia of stealing from her. This leads to a great argument and eventually it is discovered that Luzhin planted the money in her pocket, only to cause a rift between Sonia and Raskolnikov. Luzhin had hoped to get back at Raskolnikov for ruining his marriage with his sister, however this scheme failed. Luzhin then leaves the party with great disgrace.

Raskolnikov then meets him up with a very emotional Sonia to help comfort her, but also to make his confession to her. At this point he openly admits to murdering the pawnbroker and her sister (who happened to be a friend of Sonia's). Sonia is naturally shocked and in denial at first, thinking he is not the murdering type. Raskolnikov attempts to explain his motives for the murder but with Sonia's help comes to the realization that he must turn himself in. At that point their meeting is suddenly cut short when they are informed that Ivanova has drank herself to ruin. She is brought to Sonia's room where she quickly dies from this madness. Out of nowhere Svidrigailov appears and offers to pay for the children's orphanages. Raskolnikov is confused by Svidrigailov's sudden motives, who intended to give that money to his sister Dounia. Svidrigailov explains that it was an act of charity, and that she wasn't as nasty a person as the pawnbroker was. This explanation makes it clear that Svidigailov heard Raskolnikov's recent confession to Sonia, and knows that he committed the murder.

From this point on Raskolnikov finds himself in a fog of madness wandering around St. Petersburg. He once again bumps into the detective Porifry, who tells him he is going to arrest him soon but that it would be smarter if he gave himself up. Raskolnikov parts ways once again with Porifry unsure what to do, but more intent to find the strange Svidrigailov, whom has it out for his sister. That night he finally confronts Svidrigailov who is drinking at a tavern and tells him to stay away from his sister. However Svidrigailov still meets with Douina that night, entraps her in a room, and tells her he will turn her brother to the police if she does not marry him. Douina becomes hysterical at this mad person, pulls out a gun, and shoots at him but misses. She then throws the gun aside crying at the situation. Svidrigailov comes to the shattering truth that she cannot stand him and decides to let her go free. He then gives the remaining of his money to Sonia and then commits suicide with Douina's gun.

Raskolnikov not knowing what has transpired to Svidrigailov is now intent to give himself up. He first goes to his mother to bid her farewell and know that he has always loved her without confessing his crime. He then goes to Sonia to ask for her crucifix to give him strength during his time in prison. She gladly offers this to him and tells her she will go to Siberia with him and wait for him. Raskolnikov then slowly approaches the police station, still conflicted various times, he finally makes his confession. At his trial he is given a minor sentence of 8 years due to mental illness. It is a harsh time for him in the Siberian prisons but he is eventually freed, reunited with Sonia, and now seeks a new life of redemption.    

The Characters

Rodion Raskolnikov: The main character of the story comes off as highly intelligent nihilist who has lost his faith and thus lost his way. He loses grasp of what is right-and-wrong overcome by wicked dark urges. He thinks that he is entitled to commit a crime of an inferior being to help his superior cause. Furthermore he pushes his friends and family away and prefers to isolate himself with this growing dark madness. It is in a chance moment of charity that he rediscovers his goodness and finds hope and love in Sonia, who is also troubled. There can be no justification for his act, but to follow his inner madness throughout this book almost makes it a fair trade-off. A murderer must not only deal with the consequence of law, but also with their own guilty conscious that can never go away.

Sonya Marmeladova: She is the eldest daughter of Marmeladov, a drunken statesman that Raskolnikov meets at a tavern. Their family is quite poor and Sonya must work as a prostitute to help provide. She is very timid, a devout Christian, and very ashamed of her life. She begins to care for Raskolnikov when he helps her father at his final hour and gives them money to help survive. He also begins to care for her, as the one good thing happening during his madness. He confesses to her and she helps him realize that he must face the punishment. She also helps him find faith once again and gives him hope throughout his time in prison. 

Dounia Raskolnikova: She is the sister of Rodion, also very intelligent and charming but without a husband and thus quite poor. She decides to marry the wealthy Luzhin as a means to help provide for her mother and brother. This decision infuriates Raskolnikov who thinks he can murder and rob from the pawnbroker to dissuade Dounia from this decision. Dounia eventually does dismiss Luzhin with the support of Rodion and finds favor with his friend Razumikhin. Her situation grows more complicated however when her former employer Svidrigailov returns with an infatuated desire to marry her. Dounia must face this challenge on her own, and nearly kills him, before he sets her free and kills himself. She eventually marries Razumikhin. 

Pulcheria Raskolnikova: She is the mother of Rodion and simply tormented all throughout the book by Rodion's ill condition. She desires to help Raskolnikov more than anything from his apparent depression but he continues to push her aside. This eventually brings her to illness and depression herself. Thankfully Raskolnikov is able to confess his grateful love to her which brings her some peace before he is sentenced to prison. She eventually dies of illness while he is away in prison. Pulcheria represents an utmost loving mother who is tormented simply by seeing her son tormented.  

Razumikhin: He is the good-hearted friend of Raskolnikov, a law student with a common sense of principles in contrast to his friends' idealist notions. He helps keep Raskolnikov grounded and brings him support during his dark hours of illness and madness. He instantly falls for his sister Dounia, and seeks to comfort and support them during their arrival to St. Petersburg. He eventually marries Dounia. 

Porifry Petrovich: He is the head detective in St. Petersburg and coincidentally comes to meet Raskolnikov thru the association of his cousin Razumikhin. Porifry himself is a very interesting character, a true intellect, who plays psychological games with his suspects hoping to draw the truth out. He even comes to admire Raskolnikov's equal intellect in their game of chess, but eventually he informs him that he will be arrested. Porifry could be seen as somewhat cruel in adding to Raskolnikov's madness, but also sympathetic in allowing him to confess rather then arresting him.

Luzhin Pyotr Petrovich: He is the wealthy suitor and fiancé of Dounia but a man of selfish means. He seeks to own and posses Dounia as a way to be more respected in his career. He quickly comes to dislike Raskolnikov after he insults him and requests that he not be present at his dinner with Dounia and their mother. However Dounia decides to choose her brother over Luzhin, which thus ends their engagement. In one final act of revenge Luzhin attempts to frame Raskolnikov's lover Sonia, in an attempt to divide the two families, but this act fails and Luzhin leaves with disgrace.

Svidrigailov: He is the mysterious employer of Dounia from her past life and follows her to St. Petersburg to declare his love for her. It is later insinuated that he killed his wife in order to be free of her and to be with Dounia. He approaches Raskolnikov with this desire but he rejects it and tells him to stay away from his family. Svidrigailov however later hears Raskolnikov confess to his murder, and uses this as blackmail against Dounia. He tells her she must either be with him or he will turn Raskolnikov over to the police. However in a heated dispute Dounia shoots a gun at him, and he realizes that she cannot love him. In a final act of charity he hands over the rest of his money to the orphaned children of Katerina Ivanova and then commits suicide. 

The Analysis

As I mentioned before this was unlike any book I have ever read before, a true psychological thriller. It really took the reader from one crazy scenario to another, and its no wonder Raskolnikov fainted several times throughout the story, simply overwhelmed by his situation. I think Dostoevsky creates such an original story here, by not only taking us into the mind of a guilt-stricken character, but also putting this character in the midst of very dramatic circumstances. Raskolnikov must deal with his own personal struggles while also helping sort out the struggles of his mother, sister, and Sonia's issues. It's no wonder several times he just leaves everyone so he can be alone with these burdensome thoughts. 

I also think there are some hidden themes to this book, especially on the topic of nihilism vs faith. Nihilism was a movement that gained popularity in Russia throughout the mid 1800s as an ideal that rejected faith in God and believed in a life without meaning or purpose. Some would consider this a rational pursuit of science and reason. I think Raskolnikov is an example of someone who embraces a nihilistic pursuit of knowledge however in doing-so loses his ethical balance and thus loses himself. I've known many atheists throughout my life, and I often find them to be quite misguided and unstable. Perhaps Raskolnikov loss sight of the greater good in life which gave way to his dark urges. I think Dostoevsky brings forth the character of Sonia as the spiritual salvation of Raskolnikov's lost nihilistic soul. At the end of the book, he asks for her crucifix to help him begin his spiritual awakening. 

I can see why the book content could be considered scandalous material, maybe even frowned upon. It deals with the dark and haunting insanity of a murderer and those closest to him. For the majority of the book, the main character is burdened with this murder he committed and everything within him and around him has become total chaotic madness. In a way it's no different than a dystopian war stricken setting since it is portrayed from the main character's hopeless perspective. I could even see some people thinking perhaps he got off pretty easy in the end, with only 8 years for a murder in cold blood. But ultimately I don't think it's so much about the sentencing that matters. For me the real takeaway from this brilliant book is that the mental punishment for a crime can often be more severe then the legal punishment. 

Literature Study: Fyodor Dostoevsky

The past few weeks I have taken on the classic Russian Novel of Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky. I have often heard this novel considered among the greatest works of literature with Dostoevsky's name at the forefront of great Russian writers alongside Leo Tolstoy. This is the first of his works I have read and surprisingly I have been able to follow along quite well. The story is quite stimulating, a bit on the dark side, but has a very original style to it. I find myself genuinely enjoying the book which is often not the case for older works of literature that I read. I'll later have a full review in a separate post, but for now I wanted to focus on the author himself, Fyodor Dostoevsky. 

I remember the first time I heard mention of Dostoevsky was in an episode of Lost, where the villain was clearly influenced by his writings. It's from then on that I had associated the classic novel of Crime and Punishment and any other work of Dostoevsky to be rather dark content. I further came to better understand him when listening to the audiobook of The Brothers Karamazov which demonstrates some of his usual themes. This is usually pertaining to the topic of God's existence, atheism, or nihilism among his characters. Dostoevsky presents his philosophical ideals thru these complex characters and takes us into their inner conflicts and thoughts throughout his writings. 

So now I'd like to compose a full biography on the life of Dostoevsky to better understand his works. He lived in Russia from 1821-1881 and ushered in a golden era of Russian literature. His greatest works are Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1869), Demons (1872), and The Brothers Karamazov (1880). He wrote 13 novels, three novellas, seventeen short stories, and many other works. His writings influenced great philosophers and writers alike such as the playwright Anton Chekhov, the German philosopher Friederich Nietzsche, and the French philosopher Jean Paul Sartre. Dostoevsky's works gave way to the philosophical study of Existentialism and the psychological study known as Freudianism.    

The Life of Fyodor Dostoevsky

Despite his books concerning the question of God, atheism, and the idea of nihilism (life without purpose) Fyodor Dostoevsky was raised a Christian and remained one all throughout his life. His father was a physician and he spent much of his early childhood living on the hospital grounds among the lower class. From an early age he enjoyed stories and showed a keen interest in the Bible, famous novels, the Homeric Epics, and the works of Nikolai Gogol. Some of the incidents he witnessed as a child on the hospital grounds made their way into his writings, such as the rape of a 9 year old girl. Fyodor was described as a pale, introverted dreamer and later sent to boarding school by his strict father. 

At the age of 15 after his mother died, he was sent to a military engineering academy in St. Petersburg. He remained a recluse within the class, preferring his books over scientific studies. He was still however respected for his discipline and sharp knowledge on literature and religion. By 1843 after his father had died, he had graduated from the academy and took on a job as a lieutenant engineer. He began some of his earliest writings at this point but did not find much success and began to struggle financially. His breakthrough finally came in 1845 when he published his first novel, Poor Folk which was considered Russia's first ever social novel. 

Following the success of his first book he resigned from the military to focus on his writing. He published several more novels and short stories during this time and became more politically involved. He favored the leftist ideals of socialism that supported the lower working class folks and eventually joined the Petrashevsky Circle in 1846. This was a society of influential writers and thinkers who favored a political revolution on Imperial Russia. Following the Revolutions of 1848 that spread all throughout Europe, the Russian authorities made a political purge against dissidents including the Petrashevsky Circle. Fyodor was arrested as a conspirator, imprisoned for four months, and then sentenced to death by a firing squad. This was however only a mock execution, and he was spared moments before the firing squad. Instead his punishment was exile into Serbia for four years.    

Dostoevsky was sent to a prison labor camp in Omsk Siberia and suffered from various illnesses such as seizures, hemorrhoids, and hash fevers. He still managed to keep his mental strength by reading the bible and the writings of Charles Dickens. He was finally released from the prison camp in 1854 and relocated to Semipalatinsk. He remained under police surveillance for the rest of his life, returned to military service and got married in 1857. He resumed his writing and in 1861 he published The House of the Dead which was based on his experience in the Siberian labor camps. The book brought him some financial success once again and he was able to travel Europe to meet prominent writers. One of his most notable visits was to see the Crystal Palace exhibition hall in England, which he saw as a wicked monument to capitalism and materialism.

During his travels across Europe, he lost much of his finances due to his gambling addiction. His first wife and his brother both died in 1864 and he later returned to St. Petersburg. It was during this time that he wrote his most famous work, Crime and Punishment, which was first published in the Russian Messenger magazine in 1866. He married his second wife a year later and then went on a 4 year honeymoon traveling across Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. During this time he wrote two more of his famous works, The Idiot and Demons which were both published in the Russian Messenger. However he also continued to struggle with his gambling addiction. 

Despite the success of his books, Dostoevsky was always struggling financially due to the gambling. He moved back to St. Petersburg in 1871 with his family and established his own publishing company. The company was a success managed by his wife selling many copies of Demons and new essay writings in his periodical called Diary. Around this time Dostoevsky's political ideals shifted to more conservative, ethical, and religious ideals. His health began to significantly deteriorate by 1876 with frequent seizures and shortness of breath. However he was honored by Tsar Alexander II who asked Dostoevsky to tutor his son. This increased Dostoevsky's national fame and he acquainted with many other prominent Russian artists of the time such as the realist painter Ilya Repin. He wrote his final great novel, The Brothers Karamazov in 1880. He died in 1881 from a hemorrhage and spent his final moments with his family quote biblical verses. His funeral was attended by more than 100,000 mourners which demonstrates the public fame he had achieved.

The Works of Dostoevsky

The writings of Dostoevsky all reflect the life he lived, his experiences and his beliefs. This mostly pertains to leftist political ideals favoring justice and the impoverished while also supporting the structure of Christianity and faith. Some of the common themes in his books deal with poverty, social problems, the debate of religion, and inner conflict. He incorporates a very unique style of philosophical and psychological components to each of the characters in his writings. The writing is no doubt a bit on the gothic side yet still incorporates realistic fiction with deeper meanings. I think his books can be used as a great study on real human psychological reactions. 

• Poor Folk (1846)
• This was Dostoevsky's first major novel based off his experience as a young child growing up with impoverished families on hospital grounds. The novel depicts a correspondence between two family members as they struggle with their low self esteem from living in poverty. 
  
• House of the Dead (1862)
• 
  This novel is a fictionalized memoir of Dostoevsky's four year experience in a Siberian labor camp. The story demonstrates the narrator's mental struggles while trying to survive the harsh conditions of the camp. He finds strength thru the other prisoners he meets there. 
• Notes from the Underground (1864)
• This unique story is written as a confessional of Dostoevsky's philosophy thru the narration of a retired civil servant from St. Petersburg. The main narrator lives in his basement as recluse quite bitter at society and writes down all the wrongs that have led him to this circumstance. The character eventually tries to find some hope thru a poor prostitute.  
• Crime and Punishment (1866)
• Considered Dostoevsky's magnum opus it pertains to the inner conflict of a man who commits a murder he believes to be justifiable. He is however overcome with great guilt, remorse, and even madness as he tries to come to terms with his acts. He must eventually face the authorities knowing there is no way he can live on without confessing.  
• The Gambler (1867)
• Also another fictionalized memoir of Dostoevsky's problems with gambling. Set in a hotel in Germany, a young educated tutor hopes to regain wealth, love, and happiness thru gambling. However he gets in too deep and falls into a downward spiral of financial loss.
• The Idiot (1868)
• The title is a sarcastic reference to the main character who is a good, honest, and righteous person that is taken advantage of by the rest of society. Dostoevsky uses this simple structure of good man living in a cruel world, to demonstrate his philosophical and religious ideals pertaining to modern day society. 
• Demons (1871)
• Considered one of Dostoevsky's darkest and most violent books it demonstrates a psychological thriller of a man struggling with nihilist ideals. Dostoevsky creates a fictional dystopian town that is overrun by anarchy, crime, and a lack of Christian principles. The book ultimately demonstrates the problems with nihilism and anarchy and that the true path is one of faith.
• The Brothers Karamazov (1879)
• Once again Dostoevsky creates a plot of characters discussing philosophical and spiritual ideals in this famous novel. It's essentially an argument between two brothers who are faced with the death of their father. One is an atheist while the other is a believer and the two argue ideals as it pertains to the modern day society of Russia.