Historical Study: Golden Age of Islam

The setting of Assassin's Creed Mirage takes place in the 860s in the capital city of Baghdad during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate. I've often heard of this term, caliphate, but I know very little of it's historical or cultural significance. It's essentially a government, like a monarchy or democracy, that is ruled by religious law, in this case, Islamic Law. Following the emergence of the Prophet Muhammad (570-632 AD) the religion of Islam quickly spread all throughout the Middle East. First came the Rashidun Caliphate (from 632-661 AD), then the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 AD), and finally the most prominent that ushered in the golden age was the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 AD). 

To better understand this cultural renaissance that occurred in the Middle East, one could look towards the state of the western world for more context. This period in history is often referred to as the dark ages, because the Roman Empire had collapsed and there really wasn't a driving civilization in the world for some time. Christianity was slowly beginning to spread throughout Europe, however most of civilization was run by warlords, barbarians, and Viking tribes. The Holy Roman Empire and The Byzantine Empire established some order, but nowhere near the structure that it's predecessor did. 

Since the fall of the mighty Persian Empire to Alexander the Great (331 BC) the Middle East more-or-less took a passenger seat to western affairs. They became a puppet state of the Macedonians, Greeks, and the Romans. They eventually did establish some separation and self-governing in certain regions where the Selecuid, Parthian, and Sasanian Empires sought to restore their ancient heritage. Prior to the establishment of Islam in the 600s, most ancient Arabic religions comprised of polytheistic deity worship (on par with Egyptian or Greek Mythology). One of the more popular religions practiced was Zoroastrianism, based off the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster. This religion was practiced throughout the Persian Empire up into the Sasanian Empire, and was considered as a home-grown ideology as opposed to Christianity or Judaism. 

The Rise of the Prophet Muhammad

I know very little of the Prophet Muhammad, only that he is considered the founder of Islam, and that his followers are very dedicated. The religion of Islam is the 2nd most popular religion in the world after Christianity. Surprisingly it was not established until 610 AD during the ministry of Muhammad. I for one thought the religion had a much more ancient history than this, but I believe it still pulls from the Jewish Old Testament as well. I've often heard that Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all worship the same god with different teachings and practices. His work during this period would lead to a very significant historical and cultural renaissance. 

Muhammad was born in Mecca, 570 AD (present day Saudi Arabia), the son of a tribal leader, who died very early. He was raised by his grandfather and little is known of his childhood only that he was filled with spirituality. At the age of 40 he began to seek a deeper meaning to life and philosophy and would spend days secluded in the nearby caves. It was in 610, in the cave of Hira, that he claimed to have been visited by the angel Gabriel who inspired him to establish these new teachings into a book known as the Quran. From 613-619 AD Muhammad began his ministry teaching and spreading the word of this new found religion of Islam. He quickly began to amass followers throughout the city of Mecca, which also brought upon political opposition. 

In 622 AD Muhammad fled to the city of Medina to reorganize his growing base, away from his growing agitators in Mecca. This event is known as the Hijra, and the beginning of the Islamic Calendar. During his time in Medina, Muhammad was able to unite many of the local tribes and establish a much larger following. Soon his followers were doing open battle with the power elite of Mecca, known as the Quraysh. The Quraysh were pagan worshippers who sought to persecute what they considered as blasphemy. The Muslim-Quraysh war waged throughout the provinces of Saudi Arabia from 624-630 AD. In 631 AD Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 and easily conquered the city of Mecca (without much bloodshed). All pagan religions were brought to an end and Islam became the main religion of Arabia. Muhammad died the following year but his religion would begin to spread throughout the middle east like a wildfire. 

The Age of Caliphates

Following the death of Muhammad, his successor was disputed but eventually the role passed to his father in-law, Abu Bakr in 632 AD. This marked the beginning of the Rashidun Caliphate which quickly rose to prominence throughout the Middle East. Abu's reign only lasted two years, and passed over to Umar who began a military campaign which really put the Caliphate on the map. From 630-651 the Rashidun Caliphate began a successful military campaign conquering Levant (Israel/Syria), Egypt, and Persia (Iran). By this point they had become the new cultural, economic, and military power of the Middle East. And through this conquest came the vast spread of the growing religion of Islam. Their rise to power was driven and motivated by this new influence of Islam. 

However with every great monarchy, comes internal disputes and that was the case for the Rashidun Caliphate. The First Fitna was a civil war that took place from 656-661, a dispute of power, it lead to the overthrew of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate. The capital of the government moved from the Arabic city of Medina, to the Syrian city of Damascus. However Islam remained their driving force and thus the military conquest continued throughout the middle east. By 709 AD that had conquered the northwestern region of Africa known as the Maghreb. By 714 they had conquered most of India, Central Asia, and by the 720s under the leadership of Al-Walid they had conquered Spain. Stretching from Spain to India, the Caliphate had one of the largest empires in history. They were finally repelled by the Frankish Visigoths in southern Gaul (France). 

The Umayyad Caliphate reigned for nearly 100 years and oversaw the continued growth of Islam (while still accepting Christians and Jews into their society). The Umayyad Mosque was built in Damascus in 715 AD and remains to this day the largest and oldest mosque in the world. Islamic art and architecture began to emerge during this era, however it would eventually boom during the succeeding Abbasid Caliphate. In 747 AD the Abbasid Revolution began to fight for multi-ethnic tolerance, from the majority of non-Arabic people (who were not persecuted but still felt discriminated). Regions from Persia, Central Asia, and Mesopotamia united against the Umayyad dynasty to have them overthrown in 750 to establish the Abbasid Caliphate. The Umayyad dynasty relocated to the city of Cordoba, Spain which would later thrive as a province of the Abbasid Caliphate. 

The Abbasid Caliphate moved it's capital from Damascus to Kufa, Iraq but later founded it's iconic city of Baghdad in 762 as the new capital. Near the ancient grounds of Babylon, Baghdad would become the center of an Islamic cultural renaissance. In this age there was a focus on civilization over military conquest, that brought great discoveries in science, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and the arts. The House of Wisdom was established in the late 8th century as a new center for learning. While Islam was the dominant religion at this point the government was very tolerant towards other religions and ethnicities. This Renaissance was no doubt brought on by a new cultural fusion between Persians and Arabs. 

Throughout this Golden Age, there were still political and military engagements first with the Byzantine Empire, of which the Abbasid Caliphate was able to repel their invasion in 806. Then civil wars from within, such as the Great Civil War of Abbasid in 812-813 that brought upon a siege to Baghdad and the overthrow of the caliph. In 836 the capital was moved from Baghdad to Samara where it's iconic spiral minaret mosque was built in 848. From this point on the caliph dynasty was fractured among regions throughout Mesopotamia, which gave way to anarchy for a period in Samara (861-870), the control of the Iranian Buyids, and the Seljuk Turks. In 1258 the city of Baghdad was sieged by a Mongol Invasion which brought an end to the Abbasid Caliphate and the Islamic Golden Age. 

The Round City of Baghdad

The video game AC Mirage, takes place in this unique round city of high walls deep in the desert, like something out of a movie. I never realized that this was the historical capital of Baghdad which was once the largest city in the world. The city was no doubt built as a statement piece to demonstrate booming wealth and culture. It was built near the iconic ancient city of Babylon, which served as the center of the neo-Babylonian and Persian Empires. At it's center was the Palace of the Golden Gate where the Abbasid caliph sat. Near the palace was the Great Mosque of al-Mansur and various other government buildings. 

The city was built in a circle about 4 mile circumference, with it's high walls and four main gates. Aside from it's central palace and mosque one of it's most iconic buildings was the House of Wisdom. This began as a great library that expanded into an academy of learning and higher enlightenment. From here there was a great exchange and development of Islam art, poetry, music, and philosophy. There was also a boom of sciences in alchemy, astronomy, physics, medicine, biology, and mathematics. Scholars from all over the world came to Baghdad to learn, share, and develop breakthroughs in many different disciplines. Sadly much of the history and architecture of this age was later destroyed during the Mongol Siege in 1268. 

Contributions from the Islamic Golden Age

• Earliest establishment of public education and univerisities
• 
  Major developments in mathematics such as the foundation of Algebra by Al-Khwarizmi and analytic geometry by Omar Khayyan. As well as breakthroughs in trigonometry, calculus, and establishing the decimal fraction system. 
• Breakthroughs in scientific research from Alhazen who identified the theory of visual perception, optics, and reflection; and Avicenna who experimented with medical drugs and wrote the Book of Healing 
  
• Advances in astronomy that rejected the notion that everything revolved around the earth. They introduced new techniques, mathematical systems, and measurements such as the geocentric model and the Tusi-Couple. They also invented devices such as the astrolobe and the quadrant to better identify and navigate the stars. 
• They established the frameworks of alchemy and chemistry notably from Jabir ibn Hayyan. He defined the metallic compositions as well as the classification of chemical substances. 
• Ibn al-Nafis made breakthroughs in biology regarding the cardiovascular and nervous system. They also laid the groundwork to zoology and natural selection notably from al-Jahiz who described a theory of "struggle for existence" in his Book of Animals.  
• Ibn Khaldun is regarded as the founding father of modern economics, sociology, historiography, and demography. 
• 
  Breakthroughs in medical treatment, healthcare, surgery, pharmacies, and medicine. The Canon of Medicine became the central source of medical practice during the age.  
• The poetry of Rumi (regarded as the greatest of all Persian poets) as well as other famous poets such as Hafez, Saadi, Ferdowsi, and Amir Khusrow. 
  
• Literature classics such as the famous One Thousand and One Nights of Middle Eastern folktales. This includes the stories of Sinbad the Sailor, Aladdin, and Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.  
• Islamic Art demonstrated an original blend of calligraphy and geometrical patterns as well as colorful displays. Quite often this art is absent of any real figures and more-so a demonstration of abstract shapes and colors. These patterns became very popular in their Persian carpets. 
• Contributions to musical theory from Al-Farabi pertaining to melody types. He was an admirer of the famous court flute musician Ziryab and Al-Kindi.

Architectural Sites from the Islamic Golden Age

• 
  The Prophet's Mosque. Formerly the Quba Mosque(Medina) Built in 623
• The Sacred Mosque of Masjid al-Haram (Mecca) Built in 638
• Great Mosque of Kairouan (Tunisia) Built in 670
  
• Great Mosque of Kufa (Iraq) Built in 670
• Al Aqsa. The Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem) Built in 692
• Umayyad Mosque (Damascus) Built in 715
• Jameh Mosque of Isfahan (Iran) Built in 771
• Great Mosque at Cordoba (Spain) Built in 785
• Great Mosque of Samara (Iraq) Built in 848
• Alhambra (Granada, Spain) 1238

Video Game Review: Assassin's Creed Mirage

The past couple weeks I have done a full emersion into Middle Eastern culture thanks to the newest Assassin's Creed game, Mirage. This is a cultural topic I have always been fascinated with, but have rarely gotten into. The game is set in Baghdad during the Golden Age of Islam (from 800s to 1200s). I have been aware that some of the earliest civilizations in human history took place in the Middle East such as Sumer, the Assyrian Empire, and the Persian Empire. I was not aware that Baghdad was once the largest city in the world, by which the Abbasid Caliphate ushered in a golden renaissance. I intend to further write/study on this historical period so won't focus too much on the game setting here. 

This release by Ubisoft marks an end to an almost three year wait after the release of Valhalla in 2020. The popular video game series is undergoing a major transformation with various new platforms and games slated to release in the next couple years. The game has been one of my favorite franchises for it's open world historical settings. This game, Mirage was a clear break from their previous formats and a return to stealth over combat. It's central character Basim was a part of the Valhalla storyline who introduced the Hidden Ones brotherhood to Eivor. This game takes place several years before the events of Valhalla, and focuses on Basim's story and initiation into the brotherhood. 

The Game-Play

Basim grows up in the outskirts of Baghdad in a city known as Anbar (present day Iraq). He works as a street thief with his friend Nehal, but seeks more purpose and goes on a daring quest to join the Hidden One Brotherhood. He steals an artifact from the Abbasid Caliphate and shows it to the Hidden Ones, who welcome him into their brotherhood. Basim then undergoes training before he is set off on his first assignment in Baghdad to uncover the mysterious cult of the Ancient Order. He undergoes various trials, searches, and assassinations throughout the Round City of Baghdad. He discovers that many of the Abbassid government officials and servicemen are corrupted by this ancient order and seeks to cleans the city from it's wickedness.

Unlike previous games such as Origins, Odyssey, Valhalla that had a power-up feature to the character which put more emphasis on combat, this game does not. Instead it dials down the complexity to a simpler format seen in the earlier games. The gameplay is once again all about stealth and not about magical powers, gear, and weapon upgrades. Basim can hold his own against an enemy, but it is no easy task against multiple enemies. This format requires stealth or flee tactics, rather than fight your way thru things (which makes the game more challenging and enjoyable). The game kind of reminded me of the 1st one (which took place in Israel/Syria) or Assassin's Creed Revelations (which took place in Constantinople). 

Aside from the main story and various collectables there aren't many side-quest interactions in this game. Instead there is a web of investigation pertaining to the main story, and contracts on the side. Performing contracts is good for tokens used to recruit help but not necessary for improving the character's level like in previous games. Basim can collect resources to improve his weapons and gear (but the arsenal is much more limited then before). Weapons include swords, daggers, throwing knives, blowdarts, smoke bombs, and noisemakers. I found the smoke-bombs to be the most effective at easily killing multiple enemies at a time. (I believe this was also the case for Constantinople, which almost felt like a cheat).

The other usual AC features are included like a loyal stead (either horse or camel) that can be called upon at any moment. Also the return of an aerial eagle companion (Enkidu) that offers great overhead eagle-vision. In this game however the bird will get shot at if there is a marksman on duty (which brings an additional challenge to take out the marksman before utilizing Enkidu's vision). Most quests or assassination zones offer various methods and opportunities to perform the task, which makes the game so enjoyable. When all else fails there is still the option to charge, kill, and run but this rarely works well plus it's just not as rewarding. 

Basim has the typical assassin skills, with the iconic assassin's switchblade used for quick stealth kills. He can blend in crowds or use various means of distractions such as hiring singers or mercenaries. The climbing is reminiscent to earlier games with routes to take, rather then the ability to climb anywhere. He can pickpocket which is often needed in main quests or simply collecting additional money or resources. He also has the iconic eagle vision which allows him to identify enemy threats, allies, and even locate treasures. The viewpoints are ideal for uncovering all the map has to offer. 

All-in-all I'd say this was a very limited game compared to previous more ambitious games. I zipped thru the main story rather quickly and effortlessly and probably put no more than 20 hours into the main story, and maybe an additional 5 hours into contracts and exploring. The setting of Baghdad was interesting but hardly offered much awe-inspiring buildings (aside from the House of Wisdom and some mosques here and there). I was glad to see they removed the present-day animus storyline which always takes away from the historical magic. I was overall satisfied and inspired by the game, but don't think it would make my top ten favorite AC games. 

Book Review: (The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel) The Magician

I recently finished the 2nd book in Michael Scott's book series, The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel, The Magician. The book was once again loaded with great historical and mythological insight and quite the easy page turner. I actually read a majority of the book on my flight to Boston a few weeks ago. This is saying something since I can rarely read well on a flight. But the book easily captured my attention as the two Newman twins raced across Paris. Alongside Nicholas Flamel and Scatty, they were joined by some new historical allies yet also some new villains. I'll once again break down the plot and the iconic characters from the book.

The Plot

At the end of Book 1, the twins, Flamel, and Scathach narrowly escape John Dee's immortal army in the small town of Ojai, California. At the house of the Witch of Endor they are able to go thru a portal, a ley line, that connects them to Paris. They arrive in a closet of the Sacre Coeur Basilica of Paris, France and are quickly surrounded by a new adversary, Niccolo Machiavelli. He also is an immortal who serves the dark elders and seeks to capture the codex pages and powers that the twins possess. Sophie is able to use her newly awakened powers to create a thick fog around the area, which allows them to escape from Machiavelli's police officers. They then briefly regroup at a coffee shop to find someone in Paris who can help them. 

They call the Witch of Endor who tells them to meet another alchemist at the Eiffel Tower. The alchemist happens to be Comte de Saint-Germain, the student of Nicholas Flamel who lived during the 1700s. The group is once again discovered by Machiavelli's officers and Saint-Germain puts forth a magical display of fireworks to once again distract them and escape. They return to Saint-Germain's house where they meet his wife, Joan of Arc. Saint-Germain trains Sophie in fire magic, while Joan of Arc and Scatty train Josh with his new sword, Clarent (the enemy of Excalibur). Meanwhile Nicholas Flamel grows weaker as he no longer has his immortal elixir. 

John Dee reunites with Machiavelli in Paris, and are escorted by the mysterious fish/humanoid Dagon. The two cannot stand one another yet share a common interest to capture the twins and turn them to their side. They decide to recruit the help of a group of Valkyries, known as the Disir and a mighty dragon known as the Nidhogg. The Disir are intent to seek revenge on Scathach and lead the assault on the house of Saint-Germain. Scatty, Joan-of-Arc, Sophie, and Josh are able to repel their attack but the dragon Nidhogg causes significant damage. He captures Scatty in his claws and runs off with her, while Josh heroically chases after her. Two of the Disir warriors are frozen while the third escapes. 

The Nidhogg tears thru the streets of Paris destroying everything in it's path. John Dee and Machiavelli are able to track the creature and discover that Josh is nearby. Near the Seine River Josh is able to confront the dragon, and pierces him several times with the magical sword Clarent, which pours stone into the blood of the dragon. He then faces the third Disir and is surprisingly able to stand his ground against the mighty Valkyrie warrior. Before Scatty can be freed however, Dagon is set loose upon her. He pulls her down into the river with the sinking dragon. John Dee and Machiavelli are able to collect Josh in their car after the pandemonium finally settles down. 

Meanwhile Flamel's wife Perenelle is still trapped at Alcatraz guarded by the Sphinx who drains all her magical powers. She is able to call upon a ghost however, Juan Manuel de Ayala, a Spanish captain who discovered the San Franscisco Bay. He informs her of the caves under the prison, and helps her escape from the Sphinx. Under the caves she witnesses many cells of monsters and discovers that John Dee is keeping them prison here. Furthermore he calls upon the Morrigan to finish Perenelle off. Perenelle however discovers the giant spider elder, Areop-Enap an old friend of hers and recruits her help fighting against the Morrigan. Together they are able to defeat the Morrigan and her army of crows. 

Sophie and Flamel are very concerned when they discover Josh has run off with John Dee and Machiavelli. Sophie is able to use her magical powers to track the golden aura trail of Josh and they follow them down into the catacombs of Paris. This underground labyrinth was once a burial site for the overcrowded dead of Paris, and is layered with many skulls. Josh is led to the dark elder Mars Ultor, the Roman god of War (also known as Ares). His powers are awakened by the elder who demands a favor in return. However at this point Sophie confronts Mars Ultor and freezes him as she runs off with her brother. 

Back above ground the group comes to the Notre Dame Cathedral where they are confronted by John Dee and Machiavelli's army of living gargoyle statues. At first they are overwhelmed but later Sophie and Josh are able to reunite their magical auras to blast the statues into rubble. They are able to flee the battle scene, where on top the cathedral Machiavelli and Dee promise to continue their hunt. The twins and Flamel say goodbye to Saint-Germain and Joan of Arc and board a train to London. Josh is upset that Scatty has drowned, but Flamel informs him that she will be alright.  

New Historical Characters 

• 
  Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527): He was a prominent Florentine diplomat, author, and philosopher during the Italian Renaissance. He played a vital role in the ongoing governing administration of the Florence Republic. He is often considered the father of modern political science. 
• Comte de Saint-Germain (1712-1784): He was a famous European philosopher, scientist, author, musician, and alchemist who traveled all across Europe. His life was a rather mysterious one as he traveled from country to country engaging in diplomatic missions and high society functions. He spent time in England, France, and the Netherlands throughout his life.
  
• Joan of Arc (1412-1431): She was a French hero, soldier, and saint who lead the French to victory at the Siege of Orleans during the Hundred Years War. She claimed to have been visited by divine intervention to lead the French army. However she was later defeated at the Siege of Paris in 1429 and shortly after burnt to the stake on charges of heresy at the age of 19. Her honor was later restored as a saint and a national hero of France. 
• Juan Manual de Ayala (1745-1797): He was a Spanish explorer who was the first to discover the San Francisco bay in 1775. His ship the San Carlos landed on Angel Island and later Alcatraz Island (of which Ayala named). 

New Mythological Characters

• Dagon: In Sumerian and Mesopotamian Mythology he was regarded as a father of gods, lord of the land, prosperity, and royalty. He was often depicted as a fish-humanoid worshiped by the ancient Syrians, Philistines, and many other civilizations throughout ancient Mesopotamia. 
• 
  The Disir: In Norse Mythology the Disir are like the female Valkyrie warriors, who bring the glorious dead souls into Valhalla. They serve as ghostly protectors of fate often depicted as riding flying horses and carrying swords. 
  
• Nidhogg: In Norse Mythology is a dragon-like monster that gnaws at the root tree of Yggdrasil. He is often portrayed as a villainous monster who chews away at the corpses of wicked men.
• Areop-Enap: In Micronesian Mythology, particularly the indigenous peoples of Nauru, this was a giant spider who was worshiped as the source of creation. The spider is often depicted as having the face of a human. 
• Mars Ultor: In Roman Mythology he is often referred to as Mars (or Ares in Greek Mythology) the god of war. The planet Mars and the month of March are named after him. He was considered the father of Romulus and Remus who founded the city of Rome. He is often depicted as having a love affair with Venus (or Aphrodite in Greek Mythology). 
• Phobos and Demios: In Greek and Roman Mythology they are the sons of Ares or Mars. They represent fear and panic, specifically in battle. They serve as their father's guards often depicted as frightening skeletal creatures.     

Movie Review: Napoleon

I've written numerous posts now about French history and culture, so it should come as no surprise as to how excited I was for this film. Especially for this content pertaining to the French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte (see French Revolution, French Revolutionary Wars, Napoleonic Wars) some of my favorite historical material. Even more so this film had two names from my all time favorite film of Gladiator, it's director Ridley Scott and the starting role of Napoleon played by Joaquin Phoenix. Then there was the stunning up-and-coming actress Vanessa Kirby who continues to allure on the big screen. The previews looked amazing, a true historical epic meant to be experienced on the big screen. I just saw the film yesterday with Philip and Shawnna and can gladly say it lived up to my high expectations. 

My general perception of Napoleon was that he was a conquering tyrant, no different than Alexander the Great or Julius Caesar. He restored France to the precipice of world power, following it's dissolution of their monarchy.  He was best renown for his genius military tactics and won many battles throughout Europe. However his thirst for power ultimately led to his downfall and the cause of many unnecessary deaths. There is often great debate as to whether Napoleon was good or bad, which surely would depend on who you ask. However one thing cannot be denied, was that he was a great historical military leader. 

The Premise

The movie begins with the public execution of Marie Antoinette, as she slowly approaches her historical fate with the guillotine. I have seen this historical event portrayed in various other films, but this was by far the best done. With top quality setting, costumes, and filming I could tell this film was going to provide some great historical insight. I love historical biopics mostly because they give us a real idea how the event might have looked and unfolded. Well that was certainly the case of this film. Following the death of Marie Antoinette, the title was revealed and the story began. 

At the time Napoleon was a young up-and-coming captain in the French Army loyal to the new council that had replaced the monarchy. He led an assault on the royalist fort Toulon in 1793 which captured his brilliance yet early nerves. His horse was blown apart in a very graphic scene. Following this successful siege, Napoleon is promoted to general of the French Republic Army. Meanwhile there is a political shift within the French Directory where the revolutionary leader, Maximilien Robespierre is overthrown and executed (in a rather graphic failed suicide attempt with a shot to his face). This ended the Reign of Terror and many political enemies were released from prison, including the widow, Josephine de Beauharnais. 

After Napoleon defends the Republic once again against a royalist insurrection, the 13 Vendemiarie  1795, he begins to court the beautiful Josephine. They quickly get married and have a complicated and sexual relationship that bears no children. In 1798 Napoleon leads the French Army to success in Egypt at the Battle of the Pyramids, however returns home when he discovers his wife has been sleeping with a lover. The Republic Council question him for deserting the Egyptian war, however he questions them with the poor economy of the nation. He then overthrows the directory and establishes the French Consultate which is split into three leaders, and later replaced by a French Empire in 1804 where Napoleon becomes the sole ruler and military dictator of France. 

During this time Napoleon continues to have a toxic relation with his wife Josephine, whom he loves yet desires an heir. He goes off to fight against Austria and Russia and achieves a monumental victory at the Battle of Austerlitz. He later realizes that Josephine is infertile and must divorce her, so that he can have a proper male heir to his throne. This is difficult for the both of them, but they get thru it and remain close friends exchanging letters. Napoleon marries the princess of Austria and she bears him a child in 1810. A couple years later Napoleon invades Moscow which begins his downfall. He first achieves a significant victory at the Battle of Bordino yet then arrives to an abandoned Moscow. The city mysteriously erupts into flames, and Napoleon must return home to France. During the harsh Russian winter, many of his soldiers die due to the harsh conditions, sickness, and starvation. 

His retreat from Russia in 1812, was Napoleon's greatest defeat and left him rather unguarded in the Sixth Coalition of 1813-1814. Napoleon did not have sufficient army to fight against the allied coalition of Russia, Prussia, and Britain, and was thus forced to abdicate his throne. He was exiled to the island of Elba, off the Italian coast. During this time his ex-wife Josephine grows sick and he becomes enraged and decides to return to France. He is somehow able to return to power, in a period known as the Hundred Days, thru loyalty of his army. Reinstated as emperor he quickly mobilizes his army after Britain, Prussia, and Russia declare war on France. This leads to the famous Battle of Waterloo in 1815, where Napoleon is finally defeated by the Duke of Wellington. He somehow survives the battlefield and is once again exiled to a far away island. On the Island of St. Helen he is left with fewer resources and spends his final 6 years of his life there. His final words before his death are France, army, and Josephine. 

The Review

I was greatly satisfied with the quality of this film, especially it's large scale battle-scenes. The battles of Austerlitz and Waterloo were very impressive to see on the big screen. I was also very intrigued by the historical content pertaining to the political infighting amongst revolutionaries such as Robespierre, the French Directory, the Royalists, and the establishment of the French Consulate, and finally the French Empire. I would certainly like to watch this movie several more times just to better understand the civil political conflict going on here. The acting, setting, costumes, and filming were all top quality with great performances from Joaquin Phoenix and Vanessa Kirby, worthy at least of Academy nominations in my opinion.

Aside from it's beautiful historical imagery, the biggest downfall in this film was a rather weak story. It was certainly nowhere near the artistic quality of Ridley Scott's Gladiator. Of course we knew it would be a rushed biopic about Napoleon's militaristic life, yet if only they could have driven deeper into his personal character. Instead we got a very complicated relationship with Josephine, where it was hard to understand if she really loved him or not. Napoleon was portrayed as a brute with a soft side for Josephine, who certainly loved her but he did not respect her. Josephine on the other hand was equally portrayed as conflicted with the relationship, at first disgusted by him but later unwilling to divorce him (likely due to the wealth and power she had acquired from their marriage). Their interactions with each other were shared more by intense looks rather than dialogue. 

Vanessa Kirby for me is a major appeal to this movie, not only for her sheer beauty but her overall performance. She was without question the right choice to play an empress of France, as she illuminated royalty with her powerful voice and stares. Joaquin Phoenix is also the right choice to play this rather dark figure of Napoleon, who ultimately was very self-centered and only cared about his own personal glory. I'm sure there may be some historical critiques who think Joaquin's physical appearance and performance wasn't suited for the real Napoleon (just by looking at art alone). But to counter that I would argue that Joaquin Phoenix is such a great and acclaimed actor that he can still pass off as this great French historical figure. It's no question that Joaquin has a very talented yet also dark side in the many roles he has played, which is way this role of Napoleon was perfect for him. 

Tribute: Cochie

Yesterday morning my dog of 9 years, Cochie passed away. She was 14 years old. She had grown quite sick the past couple months with struggled breathing, hard coughing, and bloody nose-runs. Things got even worse when she got into a fight with my brother's dogs and got bit in the face. This lead to a pretty bad infection in which I had to take her to the vet about a month ago. Cochie has always been quite the anxious dog, and never did well at the vet. So like usual they had to sedate her, just to give her some proper care. But the sedation really took a toll on her. I almost thought she might die from the sedation, but she eventually regained her strength after a couple days. However she was not herself after that sedation and completely lost her appetite. It was a struggle to give her the pain/penicillin meds since she just wouldn't eat much. 

During the 1st week of October we went on a family vacation to Punta Cana and I got my aunt and niece to watch over her. One of those days she had a pretty bad blood discharge from her nose. My understanding is she did okay but still her appetite was at a minimal. When I saw her after that week vacation I was shocked at how much weight she had lost. She no longer wanted to eat her canned food or leftovers. I was able to get her to nibble on some chicken skin and broth, but just not much. I think by that point I had finally accepted that Cochie was dying. The kids came that weekend and I think this brought her some new life and energy. But it was short-lived and a few days later she was back to her very fragile state. I was afraid it was only a matter of time until I would find her dead on the floor. 

Last weekend I was planning to go to Fort Wayne for my grandmother's 80th birthday. However on Friday I let Cochie outside and she laid on the ground for a bit and then simply could not get up again. I had to carry her inside. After this she struggled for some time to stand up and simply could not which lead to some very heavy breathing. I feared that I could not take her to Fort Wayne in this state and did not want to leave her alone, so decided to stay home with her last weekend. I'm glad I made this decision since it was her last couple days. 

On Sunday evening she somehow managed to walk down to the basement, but could not get back up after that. So I had to carry her upstairs again. After this she struggled for some time to try to stand up. This was the hardest part to watch her struggling with this reality. That she could no longer stand up. This lead to over exertion which led to some heavy breathing. She would also bark and let out some loud cries. Not sure if it was physical pain or more emotional pain. Maybe both. I stayed closed to her that evening and gave her as much pets and attentions as I could before going to bed. I had a good feeling she would die overnight. And sure enough Monday morning there she was, stiff as a rock. Was such a shock to see her in that state. It was sad, but also brought me peace that she was now in peace. 

Look Back at Cochie's Life

Philip and Shawnna got Cochie as a pup and named her "Cochina" which is Spanish for pig (since she was eating like a pig). She was a black dog, part lab, part German Shepard, and definetely seemed to have some wild in her. I quickly liked Cochie the first time I saw her, for her athletic/wolf-like appearance. We had a Germán Shepard (Loba) as kids, and ever since I have been more partial towards the wolf breed dogs. She was extremely energetic and fast as a young pup and I remember seeing her several times leap over my parent's fence at Kekionga. 

I remember our first time together, I took her camping with me in 2010 with my friends EJ, Laura, and Daniella. She was only a pup, not even a year old, and this was our first adventure together. She sat in the backseat as we drove to Van Buren, Michigan. I remember at one point at a gas station she broke free of her leash and I was so afraid she would run off, but she did not. We had a great time camping and she did such a great job and was a hit with my friends as well as the fellow campers in the area. After this experience I dogsat Cochie several more times at my apartment at River Road from 2011-2012 (which was pet friendly).  

Cochie always had a bit of a wild side which brought out her anxious side (especially around kids and little girls). Not sure if it was fear, jealousy, insecurity, protection, or flat-out dislike but she had several instances of biting some of the kids at our family gatherings. It was in the summer of 2014, when I had just bought my new condo, that Philip and Shawnna asked me if I would become Cochie's new owner. Since I didn't have any children, and was quite fond of dogs and Cochie, I gladly took on the new responsibility. Being a dog-owner was something I had been thinking of for some time, and it was even better that it was a dog that I was already quite familiar with (and who was already trained). 

Those first couple years when Cochie joined me at my condo was a very new and exciting time in my life. I had a new job with Dow Agro, a new house, and now a new companion to take care of. I was a much better pet owner at that time. I took her on frequent runs at Eagle Creek Park and would often buy her toys and snacks. I took her to social gatherings with my college friends. I got her a nice bed for downstairs in the living room, and upstairs in my bedroom. She loved my wooded backyard and whenever I built a fire indoors. I even took her to the vet frequently to get her shots and give her medicine. I remember there were problems of course early on, especially with my blinds. She would tear them down while I was at work which was quite frustrating. I later changed the blinds and put some furniture next to the windows so she couldn't jump up there and knock them down when strangers were outside. 

In 2017 Cochie got a new roommate when I got a new cat from Philip and Shawnna, Mugsy. This was the first cat I ever had and wasn't sure what to expect since we never had one as kids. I tried to give them equal attention, and believe they got along fine for the most part. During the day Cochie now had someone to hang out with while I was at work. Sometimes it seemed like Mugsy would bully Cochie, but I think it was all just good playful fun. Life went on pretty uneventful with these two for some time. At some point I changed the food routine to giving her half a can of wet food mixed with dry food (use to just be always dry food). I also remember at some point when I was dog-sitting Lady, the two of them went on a morning adventure. I was almost an hour late for work as I drove all around the neighborhood trying to find them. I remember my neighbor Jennifer helped me finally locate them. 

I won't lie I began to grow quite frustrated with Cochie's anxious behavior especially at big family gatherings. She continued to nibble at the kids if they got too close, which made them feel afraid and made me feel guilty when any of them were bitten. It got extremely difficult to take her to the vet, even after putting her on anxiety meds, she just wouldn't let these doctors near her to give those shots. I remember in the summer of 2020 while working on Philip's barn, she bit the babysitter pretty badly in the calf. Cochie always had such a motherly instinct and was protecting the chicken, but still made the poor girl bleed. I was afraid I might get a fine or even worse, but luckily the girls' parents did not press any charges. 

In the summer of 2021 I had some good quality time with Cochie when I took her camping to Brown County State Park. I pitched a tent, did some reading, made a campfire, cooked some steak, and went hiking. I planned a good 3 mile hike with Cochie, but it was so extremely hot that afternoon we hardly made it half-mile before Cochie had enough. I remember walking around with her and some young girl asked to pet her, and she did such a good job at not reacting. I told myself I wanted to camp more frequently but just never got it since then. I remember she got a little sick after returning, maybe from the steak I gave her or something else. She always had such a good appetite and would eat about anything in the leftover department. She loved cheese, meat, and bones. 

I think it was a couple years ago she gave me quite a scare when she ran off. I remember I had gotten home from work, and must have had quite a bad day, and there was poop on the floor, and naturally I yelled at her. I sent her outside and then after some time noticed she had gone missing. I spent the entire evening looking for her, walking and driving around the neighborhood. I even put up online ads that she had gone missing. I think later that night I did find her nearby hiding by a tree. She had run off for a little bit, but had returned. I was so happy she was back and made sure not to get too angry at her again. Sometimes I think Cochie didn't really like me as much as my parents, but I know she was always grateful for me. I was certainly always grateful for her companionship. Even on the rare days where she was gone, it felt so different and empty in the house. 

Perhaps the biggest change for Cochie (aside from moving in with me in 2014) was moving into my new house in Zionsville a year ago. I settled on a house with a fenced-in backyard mostly so Cochie would have space to run and explore the outdoors. I had grown tired of the regulations at my condo, especially when a neighbor filed a complain because Cochie was in her yard. Now in my new house Cochie had plenty of space to roam and explore freely. Naturally it took her a few days to get use to the routine, but soon she established her new habits of where to sleep, rest, and eat. She made friends with the next door dog and would love to sit out by the fence and watch for him. 

I like to think she got at least 7 or 8 good months here at my new place until her condition began to worsen. Her reaction time and energy had certainly taken a dip the past year. She had also begun to lose her hearing, and I would have to clap to get her attention when outside. The coughing, breathing, and bloody-nose runs probably began in the early summer and continued to grow worse. Even then however I didn't think it would be near the end for Cochie, and still thought she had a couple more years in her. She was always such a tough dog, a true survivor. But I think the bite and the sedation really expedited her worsening condition. The average lifespan for dogs is 10-13, and I'm glad to know she made it to 14. She lived a pretty long life and I don't think she was really ever in true pain. I sometimes wish I could have done more to make her happier, but I cared for her, and fed her, and gave her shelter for nearly 10 years and I think that benefited both her and myself. She was a good dog, her life was a part of my life, and she will never be forgotten.  

Book Review: The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel, The Alchemyst

During my Harry Potter phase I decided I wanted to read an easy book pertaining to magical fantasy. After much research I stumbled upon this 6-part series written by Michael Scott. The first book in the series, The Alchemyst was written and published in 2007. I really wasn't sure what to expect but can surprisingly say I really enjoyed it. The book was very easy to read a true page turner, easy to follow and comprehend. But what I must enjoyed about the story was the historical and mythological references. During my reading I would quite often set the book down to look up a topic discussed in the book. I love a good story, but I love it even more when I can learn some real history or culture within it. 

The Plot

The story is set in present day San Francisco where two 15 year old twins, Joshua and Sophie Newman are both at work for the day. Joshua works at a book store, while Sophie works across the street at a coffee shop. They suddenly witness a mysterious man enter the bookstore and begin to attack it's owner in search of an ancient book. We later discover this mysterious man is the English alchemist John Dee, who served for Queen Elizabeth during the 1500s. We also discover that the owner of the bookstore is the immortal Nicholas Flamel, a French alchemist who lived during the 1300s. And his wife, Perenelle Flamel owns the coffee shop. A magic battle ensues in which John and his monstrous golem thugs capture Perenelle and walk off with the ancient Book of Abramelin the Mage. However John Dee is unaware that Joshua has ripped out that back two pages which are essential parts of the codex. 

Nicholas Flamel reveals all the details of his existence to the twins and warns them they are in danger, once John Dee discovers the pages are missing. They visit an old friend of Flamel, who happens to be an Irish mythological warrior, Scathach, who takes the form of a younger woman. Scathach explains that she is an elder, a second generation from the age of gods. They also believe the twins have powerful magic within them and are key to an ancient prophecy. Their meeting is cut short however when they are attacked by Dee's ally, the Morrigan, who also is an Irish mythological warrior. The Morrigan is like a witch of birds and sends all the birds in San Francisco to attack the group. With Josh at the wheel they just barely escape across the Golden Gate bridge and find refuge at the shadow realm of the Yggdrasil tree. Here dwells the three-faced Greek goddess Hekate.

Nicholas Flamel requests that this goddess of magic, awaken the powers within Josh and Sophie. Hekate is reluctant at first since the awakening is a very dangerous process that can kill a human. However when she discovers that Dee and the Morrigan have a recruited a very powerful ally, the Egyptian goddess Bastet, she decides to awaken the twins' powers. Hekate is only able to awaken Sophie, as she must then run to defend the attack on her home tree of Yggdrasil. Dee, the Morrigan, and Bastet have brought an army of cat-people and bird-people to lay siege to the massive tree world. As the fighting ensues, the tree is set to fire, which only further enrages Hekate. Dee then pulls out the ancient ice-sword of Excalibur and freezes the tree as well as Hekate. Flamel, Scathach, and the twins are able to escape the shadow realm before it is destroyed.

Having just been awaken, Sophie is in a very fragile state, overwhelmed by the heightened sensations she is feeling. The group journeys to the valley of Ojai, to seek the Witch of Endor who can help calm Sophie's awakening process. The Witch of Endor does this by transferring all her powers and knowledge to Sophie. Their meeting is once again cut short however when John Dee arrives with a new army of the living dead. Dee is almost able to convince Josh to join his cause who but has a sudden change of heart thanks to his sister. The Witch of Endor show the group to a magical portal, connected by ley lines, that will send them to Paris. The book ends quite abruptly at this point, a blatant cliffhanger to begin the 2nd book.

The Historical Figures

• 
  Nicholas Flamel (1330-1418): He was a French scribe and owned several book shops in the city of Paris. He and his wife Perenelle later became infatuated with the practice of alchemy. Nicholas wrote several books pertaining to hieroglyphics and philosophy. His true legend occurred after his death, where his body was found missing. It was later believed that he had discovered the philosopher's stone to turn metal into gold, as well as the elixir of life. Various accounts believed he had decoded the ancient Jewish Book of Abramelin the Mage.  
• Perenelle Flamel (1320-1397): She came from wealthy families in Paris and married Nicholas Flamel with an equal curiosity in books and alchemy. She and Nicholas were devout Catholics and contributed much of their wealth to churches. 
  
• John  Dee (1527-1609): He was a very influential advisor to Queen Elizabeth and considered a master of astronomy and alchemy. As a political advisor he advised the Queen when to be crowned and encouraged the colonization of the New World to establish a British Empire. He studied antiquities and had one of the largest libraries in England. His true passion was the study of Hermetic philosophy which branched into the supernatural practices of alchemy, divination, and even magic. He spent much of his life practicing occultism, spiritualism, and searching for the means of magic. 

The Mythological Figures

• 
  Scathach: In Irish mythology she is a Scottish warrior woman from the Isle of Skye known as the shadow or the warrior maid. In the Irish epic, The Tain, she trains the hero Cu Chulainn in martial arts and combat. She dwells in a fortress of shadows known as Dun Scaith and her greatest rival is her sister, Aife.
  
• The Morrigan: In Irish Mythology she is known as the phantom queen of war and fate, often associated with crows. In the stories of the Ulster Cycle she encounters the hero Cu Chulainn various times. She is often depicted as a trio of sisters; Eriu, Banba, and Fodla who are all associated as land goddesses. Due to her more enigmatic nature pertaining to war and fear she is often considered a darker figure. She is even associated with the banshees and ghosts of Irish folktales.
• Hekate: In Greek Mythology she is a three-faced/three-bodied goddess of crossroads, the night, the moon, and all practice pertaining to magic. With her knowledge of herbs, she provides protection against witchcraft, necromancy, and ghosts. She also serves as a goddess of doorways, entries, thresholds, gates, portals, boundaries, and the transition from life to death. 
• 
  Yggrdasil: In Norse Mythology it is the most sacred tree that serves as the root and source of all life and worlds in the universe. It is described in the Poetic Edda as being the tree at the center of the cosmos that reaches to the heavens. At the core of the tree many of the gods assemble as well as many other significant Norse figures such as the three Norns who shape human destiny.
• Bastet: In Egyptian Mythology she is a goddess depicted with the body of a woman and the head of a cat. She represents a fierce warrior and guardian, that of a lioness. Yet she also has a gentler feminine side as a goddess of fertility, pregnancy, and childbirth.    
  
• The Witch of Endor: She first appeared in the Old Testament of the Hebrew Bible as the witch who consulted the Jewish king Saul, and summoned the spirit of the prophet Samuel. The spirit of Samuel predicts that Saul's Israeli army will be crushed by the Philistines which happens the next day. Realizing that he has been defeated Saul commits suicide, which serves as a punishment for seeking counsel from a witch instead of God. From this biblical narrative the Witch of Endor has appeared in various other folktales, songs, plays, and operas. 

Book Review

I love how the author was able to merge different mythologies into one fantasy story. Furthermore they were all figures I knew little about. I know nothing of Irish mythology and became quite interested in the characters of Scathach and the Morrigan portrayed in this book. I also learned quite a bit of the historical figures in the book such as John Dee, who lived a very intriguing life. And of course Nicholas Flamel and his wife Perenelle, who had managed to live for over 700 years. In their accounts are numerous references to historical events such as the Golden Age of Elizabeth or the London Fire of 1666. Even the codex, the Book of Abramelin the Mage is a real book believed to have been written in 1458 and published and translated in the 1700s. 

The story is a fairly easy one to follow pertaining to the American teenagers of Joshua and Sophie Newman. While they think of themselves as average everyday teenagers and siblings, it is quite far from the truth. The story becomes a coming-of-age story as they must not only adapt to this new magical world, but must also face serious adult situations. Both Josh and Sophie are faced with numerous life-and-death encounters, and it is there bond with each other that keeps them going. I am quite interested to see how these characters grow as they dive deeper into this intriguing magical world created by Michael Scott.   

Historical Study: Ancient History of the Middle East

I have recently purchased the video game, Assassin's Creed Mirage which I know to be set in Baghdad during the Golden Age of Islam (800s AD). As per usual I have thus planned to fully immerse myself into the game's historical culture to better appreciate it. I know very little about the history and culture of the Middle East, and find this as a great opportunity to enhance my academic understanding. Aside from studying Arab history this phase will also includes a better understanding of the practice and history of Islam, one of the most popular religions in the world. After all the core driving force of all Arab culture and history is it's devout religion of Islam. 

I have planned this phase for quite some time when I discovered the setting of the newest Assassin's Creed video game (my favorite franchise for historical submersion). Shockingly this will be my first real deep dive into Arabian culture. As a lifelong Westernized Christian it's quite sad that the connotation towards Islam, Arab, or Middle East is usually a negative one. This is no doubt accredited to their long lasting wars against the western world and Christianity such as during the Crusades. Even more recently their acts of terrorism against the western world, particularly the recent ongoing crisis of Israel-Palestine. However aside from the more violent and extreme elements, the Arab culture has made many contributions to society worth understanding. 

Since the video game is set during the Golden Age of Islam, (which spans from the 8th century to the 13th century) I'd actually like to focus on the age before this. I'll surely later have a full study on the Golden Age of Islam with a review of the game. In this post I want to focus on the early settlements and empires of the Middle East. During the age of the Egyptian Pharaohs, this barren desert land became a refuge for two emerging civilizations; the Israelites and the Arabs (descendants of the Ishmaelites). In the bible the Israelites were the descendants of Abraham's son Isaac who would go on to establish Judaism. While the Ishmaelites were the descendants of Abraham's son Ishmael, who would much later establish Islam. 

Sumer and the Assyrian Empire

According to the Bible, Ishmael was the first son of Abraham and the servant Hagar. Abraham's wife Sarah could not bear him children, so she permitted her slave to give birth to their first son. However Sarah later grew jealous of Hagar and Ishmael and they thus fled to present day Saudi Arabia, in the land that would later become the Mecca. While this is most likely legend then history, it establishes the foundation of the Arab people. Their first known civilization in the region of Mesopotamia (present day Iraq and Iran) was the Sumer which lasted from 5500 BC to 1800 BC. Their central urban capital was the city of Uruk, that became the most populated city in the world in 3100 BC. 

The Sumer civilization was eventually swallowed up by the Akkadian Empire in 2300 BC under the leadership of Sargon the Great. For nearly 200 years the Akkadian Empire controlled the entire Mesopotamian region as well as the Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and Levant (modern day Israel, Lebanon, and Syria). This early civilization later collapsed due to drought and famines and perhaps the influence of the rising Egyptian Kingdoms. By around 2000 BC the Assyrian Empire was established to become to new dominant power in the Mesopotamian region. South of this was the equally powerful Kingdom of Babylonia and it's booming city of Babylon founded in 1894 BC (modern day Baghdad).

The Kingdoms of Judah and Israel

Between 1200-1150, many of the Middle Eastern Empires such as the Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Hittite Empires began to lose their influence over the region, due to what is understood as the Late Bronze Age Collapse. This gave way to new migrants settling into the region of Levant particularly the Philistines and the Israelites. The Philistines migrated from the Aegean Seas while the Israelites had arrived on an exodus from Egypt. According to the Bible, the Israelites were slaves freed by Moses who traveled for 40 years to arrive to the Promise Land in Canaan. This group of people were the early founders of the religion, Judaism. 

The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah were established in 1047 BC, after years of war with the Philistines. According to Biblical sources, the Kingdom of Judah and Kingdom of Israel were united under the leadership of King Saul. Under the guidance of the prophet Samuel who ushered in a new governing structure away from a council of judges to a monarchy. His son David later became king and founded the city of Jerusalem, which today remains one of the holiest cities in the world. While little is known of David as a historical figure, he is considered one of the most important figures in the Jewish faith (alongside Abraham and Isaac). A good majority of the bible pertains to the stories and psalms of David.

David's son Solomon oversaw the Kingdom of Judah at it's penultimate period from 970-930 BC. While the historicity of David and Saul can be disputed, Solomon is properly recorded. It was under Solomon's reign that the first temple was constructed and according to legend housed the Ark of the Covenant. While the majority of the Old Testament pertains to the establishment of the united kingdom of Israel, the history of it is quite disputed (especially in regards to a union with the Kingdom of Judah and Israel). According to historical data, the Kingdom of Israel was sacked by the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 720 BC and the Kingdom of Judah was sacked by the neo-Bablyonian empire in 586 BC. 

Neo Assyrian and Neo Babylonian Empire

By around 900 BC the Assyrian Empire had entered it's 4th stage known as the neo-Assyrian period which would become it's most powerful. It had become the largest and most powerful world empire of it's time (stretching from Mesopotamia, Levant, and into Egypt). Their conquest of Egypt in 671 BC marked a turning point in world history, where Egypt was no longer the dominant power. Perhaps their greatest adversary in the Middle East was the Babylonian Empire. In 689 BC the Assyrians laid siege to the city of Babylon and captured it for their own, nearly destroying the iconic city. However by 626 BC the region of Assyria had become far too stretched and an alliance of the Medes and the Babylonians were able to capture their capital city of Assur.

After nearly 100 years of Assyrian occupation, the neo-Babylonian Empire once again returned to the forefront of Middle Eastern influence. It was during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (from 605-562 BC) that the city of Babylon underwent a cultural renaissance. Inspired by the Egyptian monuments, Nebuchadnezzar built a new city of wonder with great architectural structures such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Ishtar Gate, and monuments and ziggurat towers dedicated to their deity Marduk. During the 580s Nebuchadnezzar began a new military campaign thru the Levant region which included the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah and the destruction of the Solomon Temple. The Jews were taken captive in Babylon for nearly 50 years. That was until the neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by Cyrus the Great in 539 BC who allowed the Jews to return to Judah. 

Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire)

In 550 BC, Cyrus the Great lead a revolt within the Median Empire in present day Iran which established the new Achaemenid Empire (also known as the Persian Empire). Cyrus essentially inherited the Median Empire with a new focus of expansionism. His first major military campaign was against the Lydian Kingdom in 546 BC (modern day Turkey). Once he had conquered this land he later conquered the kingdoms of Central Asia such as the Bactria. His greatest victory came at the Battle o Opis, where he defeated the Neo-Babylonian Empire and conquered the city of Babylon. This brought upon a new power shift in the Middle East where the Persian Empire was the new dominant force. Cyrus became a hero to the captive Jews, when he set them free. Each of their conquered states were set up as vassals that sent tribute to their capital city of Persepolis. 

Following Cyrus' death in 530 BC, he was succeeded by his son Cambyses II who continued his father's military campaigns. This included successful conquests of Levant, Cyprus, and the mighty Egypt at the Battle of Pelusium. Following the conquest of Egypt, many neighboring kingdoms paid tribute to the Persian Empire without even a fight. Cambyses continued his campaigns further into Africa, but there was speculation he had begun to go mad at this point, and was later killed in battle near Ethiopia. After some disputes of the throne, it was later inherited by Darius the Great in 522 BC who brought the Empire's territorial reach to it's great extent. This included successful campaigns into the Balkan regions against the Macedonians and the Thracians of modern day Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece. 

While the Persian Empire was most famous for their military conquests, they also established a highly efficient governing structure. With their centralized administration in Persepolis they oversaw the collection of tributes from vassal states and built new roads to improve trade. They were also very multicultural and did not persecute their conquered states yet practiced a policy of tolerance. Darius the Great introduced a new system of coin currency as well as measuring scales. Many of his conquests  were engraved in the Behistun Inscription on Mount Behistun, which is used today as a codex to the old Persian language and culture. Their religion of Zoroastrianism, based on their prophet Zoraster, became commonplace for all their people. 

The Ionian Revolt of 499 BC ushered in a new threat to the mighty Persian Empire where the Greek city-states began uprising against their occupiers. While the Persian Empire was able to crush this early revolt it began a new military conflict known as the Greco-Persian Wars. Most famous from the movie depictions of King Leonidas' 300 Spartans or the video game Assassins Creed Odyssey. I have written various times about the Greek-Persian conflicts usually from the Greek perspective, but in this case it's now from the Persian perspective. King Darius began to see Greece as a new threat with these ongoing uprisings and planned a new campaign to invade the entire region. However in 490 BC the Greeks achieved one of their first major victories over the Persians at the Battle of Marathon. King Darius died shortly after and left the invasion to his son Xerxes.

Xerxes led the invasion of Greece in 480 BC with one of the largest armies the world had ever seen. He easily rolled thru Macedonia and Thessaly but was confronted by a stubborn force of Spartan warriors led by King Leonidas at Thermopylae. Nonetheless the Persians were still able to defeat the Greeks at Thermopylae and sacked the city of Athens. However shortly after their navy was defeated by the Greeks at Battle of Salamis and their army was decisively beaten at the Battle of Plataea. This led to Xerxes retreat and the end of the Greek invasion. It also marked one of the first major defeats for the Persian Empire in over 70 years.  

From this point on the Persian Empire withdrew their military campaigns to focus on their infrastructure. This included new building projects as well as new alliances with the enemies of Greece, who they now saw as their greatest threat. The Persians first sided with the Spartans in the Peloponnesian Civil War of 431-401 BC, and then later sided with Athens during the Corinthian Civil War from 395-387 BC. Under the reign of Artaxerxes III the Persian's lead a 2nd conquest of Egypt and sustained great wealth from this campaign. Artaxerxes was able to squash various rebellions and threats to his empire throughout his lifetime. However a new power had arisen in the region of Macedonia led by Philip II.

While King Philip had planned to invade the Persian Empire, he was assassinated in 336 BC before he could put his plans in motion. However his son, Alexander the Great would later take on his father's goal with great ambition. Darius III had arisen to the throne as a distant family member and a successful general. However he was no match for the Macedonian's new age tactics and his armies were defeated by Alexander first at the Battle of Granicus (334 BC), then at the Battle of Issus (333 BC), and decisively at the battle of Gaugamela (331 BC). With this victory Darius fled into the deserts where he was later killed by his own men. Alexander marched into the cities of Persepolis and Babylon which thus brought an end to the Persian Empire. 

Seleucid Empire, Parthian Empire, and Sasanian Empire

From this point on the Middle Eastern territory of Mesopotamia became controlled by European influence for some time. This period known as the Hellenistic Age, brought new westernized culture and ideas into the Middle East. A new cultural exchange and fusion occurred in the Middle East beginning with the Macedonian's occupation. Alexander the Great was very tolerant and welcoming of the Persian culture, and even took one as his wife to inspire a new age of peace between the west and the east. The Macedonian conquest was rather short-lived as Alexander died in 323 BC, at the young age of 33. The region of Mesopotamia was then transferred to a new Greek dynasty to establish the Seleucid Empire.

Still under Hellenistic influence, Seleucus Nicator, who served as a general under Alexander, became the new ruler of the Seleucid Empire in 312 BC. His territory stretched from the Black Sea, beyond the Mesopotamia into far eastern lands of present day Afghanistan and Pakistan, bordering the Indian Mauryan Empire. The city of Antioch became the new capital of the Empire, located on the southern coast of Turkey, it served as a booming Hellenistic gateway between Europe and Asia. The main adversaries of the Seleucid Empire were the Ptolemaic Egyptian Kingdom and the Indian Mauryan Kingdom. The Empire lasted until 63 BC where it was overthrown by the mighty Roman Republic. 

While the Seleucid Empire was swallowed up by the Roman Empire, the Parthian Empire briefly rose to prominence in 124 BC under the reign of Mithridates II. Also known as Mithridates the Great he was eager to reestablish Persian customs throughout the land of Mesopotamia. The Parthians frequently fought with the Seleucid Empire as well as the Roman Republic. After the Seleucid Empire fell, the Parthians were the last stranding stronghold in the Middle East that fought against Rome from 54 BC until their eventual collapse in 217 AD. The Parthians were not defeated by the Romans yet rather overthrown internally by Ardashir who then established the Sasanian Empire in 226 AD.

The Sasanian Empire was the last ancient civilization of the Middle East before the age of Muhammad and the caliphs. Based in modern day Iraq and Iran the empire reestablished the former glory of the Persian Empire and withstood for over 400 years. They were able to repel countless attacks from the Roman and later Byzantine Empire to their west. Similar to the Parthian Empire, the Sasanian Empire sought to restore Iranian traditions and return to their ancient religious practice of Zoroastrianism. The empire underwent several golden eras of renaissance with influential art, architecture, literature, and philosophy that promoted the Arab ideals. Bahram V was one of the most popular of the Sasanian kings, celebrated in Iranian literature. Much of this culture was later adopted by their conquerors the Rashidun Caliphate in 651 AD.