Historical Study: Ancient History of the Middle East

I have recently purchased the video game, Assassin's Creed Mirage which I know to be set in Baghdad during the Golden Age of Islam (800s AD). As per usual I have thus planned to fully immerse myself into the game's historical culture to better appreciate it. I know very little about the history and culture of the Middle East, and find this as a great opportunity to enhance my academic understanding. Aside from studying Arab history this phase will also includes a better understanding of the practice and history of Islam, one of the most popular religions in the world. After all the core driving force of all Arab culture and history is it's devout religion of Islam. 

I have planned this phase for quite some time when I discovered the setting of the newest Assassin's Creed video game (my favorite franchise for historical submersion). Shockingly this will be my first real deep dive into Arabian culture. As a lifelong Westernized Christian it's quite sad that the connotation towards Islam, Arab, or Middle East is usually a negative one. This is no doubt accredited to their long lasting wars against the western world and Christianity such as during the Crusades. Even more recently their acts of terrorism against the western world, particularly the recent ongoing crisis of Israel-Palestine. However aside from the more violent and extreme elements, the Arab culture has made many contributions to society worth understanding. 

Since the video game is set during the Golden Age of Islam, (which spans from the 8th century to the 13th century) I'd actually like to focus on the age before this. I'll surely later have a full study on the Golden Age of Islam with a review of the game. In this post I want to focus on the early settlements and empires of the Middle East. During the age of the Egyptian Pharaohs, this barren desert land became a refuge for two emerging civilizations; the Israelites and the Arabs (descendants of the Ishmaelites). In the bible the Israelites were the descendants of Abraham's son Isaac who would go on to establish Judaism. While the Ishmaelites were the descendants of Abraham's son Ishmael, who would much later establish Islam. 

Sumer and the Assyrian Empire

According to the Bible, Ishmael was the first son of Abraham and the servant Hagar. Abraham's wife Sarah could not bear him children, so she permitted her slave to give birth to their first son. However Sarah later grew jealous of Hagar and Ishmael and they thus fled to present day Saudi Arabia, in the land that would later become the Mecca. While this is most likely legend then history, it establishes the foundation of the Arab people. Their first known civilization in the region of Mesopotamia (present day Iraq and Iran) was the Sumer which lasted from 5500 BC to 1800 BC. Their central urban capital was the city of Uruk, that became the most populated city in the world in 3100 BC. 

The Sumer civilization was eventually swallowed up by the Akkadian Empire in 2300 BC under the leadership of Sargon the Great. For nearly 200 years the Akkadian Empire controlled the entire Mesopotamian region as well as the Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and Levant (modern day Israel, Lebanon, and Syria). This early civilization later collapsed due to drought and famines and perhaps the influence of the rising Egyptian Kingdoms. By around 2000 BC the Assyrian Empire was established to become to new dominant power in the Mesopotamian region. South of this was the equally powerful Kingdom of Babylonia and it's booming city of Babylon founded in 1894 BC (modern day Baghdad).

The Kingdoms of Judah and Israel

Between 1200-1150, many of the Middle Eastern Empires such as the Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Hittite Empires began to lose their influence over the region, due to what is understood as the Late Bronze Age Collapse. This gave way to new migrants settling into the region of Levant particularly the Philistines and the Israelites. The Philistines migrated from the Aegean Seas while the Israelites had arrived on an exodus from Egypt. According to the Bible, the Israelites were slaves freed by Moses who traveled for 40 years to arrive to the Promise Land in Canaan. This group of people were the early founders of the religion, Judaism. 

The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah were established in 1047 BC, after years of war with the Philistines. According to Biblical sources, the Kingdom of Judah and Kingdom of Israel were united under the leadership of King Saul. Under the guidance of the prophet Samuel who ushered in a new governing structure away from a council of judges to a monarchy. His son David later became king and founded the city of Jerusalem, which today remains one of the holiest cities in the world. While little is known of David as a historical figure, he is considered one of the most important figures in the Jewish faith (alongside Abraham and Isaac). A good majority of the bible pertains to the stories and psalms of David.

David's son Solomon oversaw the Kingdom of Judah at it's penultimate period from 970-930 BC. While the historicity of David and Saul can be disputed, Solomon is properly recorded. It was under Solomon's reign that the first temple was constructed and according to legend housed the Ark of the Covenant. While the majority of the Old Testament pertains to the establishment of the united kingdom of Israel, the history of it is quite disputed (especially in regards to a union with the Kingdom of Judah and Israel). According to historical data, the Kingdom of Israel was sacked by the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 720 BC and the Kingdom of Judah was sacked by the neo-Bablyonian empire in 586 BC. 

Neo Assyrian and Neo Babylonian Empire

By around 900 BC the Assyrian Empire had entered it's 4th stage known as the neo-Assyrian period which would become it's most powerful. It had become the largest and most powerful world empire of it's time (stretching from Mesopotamia, Levant, and into Egypt). Their conquest of Egypt in 671 BC marked a turning point in world history, where Egypt was no longer the dominant power. Perhaps their greatest adversary in the Middle East was the Babylonian Empire. In 689 BC the Assyrians laid siege to the city of Babylon and captured it for their own, nearly destroying the iconic city. However by 626 BC the region of Assyria had become far too stretched and an alliance of the Medes and the Babylonians were able to capture their capital city of Assur.

After nearly 100 years of Assyrian occupation, the neo-Babylonian Empire once again returned to the forefront of Middle Eastern influence. It was during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (from 605-562 BC) that the city of Babylon underwent a cultural renaissance. Inspired by the Egyptian monuments, Nebuchadnezzar built a new city of wonder with great architectural structures such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Ishtar Gate, and monuments and ziggurat towers dedicated to their deity Marduk. During the 580s Nebuchadnezzar began a new military campaign thru the Levant region which included the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah and the destruction of the Solomon Temple. The Jews were taken captive in Babylon for nearly 50 years. That was until the neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by Cyrus the Great in 539 BC who allowed the Jews to return to Judah. 

Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire)

In 550 BC, Cyrus the Great lead a revolt within the Median Empire in present day Iran which established the new Achaemenid Empire (also known as the Persian Empire). Cyrus essentially inherited the Median Empire with a new focus of expansionism. His first major military campaign was against the Lydian Kingdom in 546 BC (modern day Turkey). Once he had conquered this land he later conquered the kingdoms of Central Asia such as the Bactria. His greatest victory came at the Battle o Opis, where he defeated the Neo-Babylonian Empire and conquered the city of Babylon. This brought upon a new power shift in the Middle East where the Persian Empire was the new dominant force. Cyrus became a hero to the captive Jews, when he set them free. Each of their conquered states were set up as vassals that sent tribute to their capital city of Persepolis. 

Following Cyrus' death in 530 BC, he was succeeded by his son Cambyses II who continued his father's military campaigns. This included successful conquests of Levant, Cyprus, and the mighty Egypt at the Battle of Pelusium. Following the conquest of Egypt, many neighboring kingdoms paid tribute to the Persian Empire without even a fight. Cambyses continued his campaigns further into Africa, but there was speculation he had begun to go mad at this point, and was later killed in battle near Ethiopia. After some disputes of the throne, it was later inherited by Darius the Great in 522 BC who brought the Empire's territorial reach to it's great extent. This included successful campaigns into the Balkan regions against the Macedonians and the Thracians of modern day Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece. 

While the Persian Empire was most famous for their military conquests, they also established a highly efficient governing structure. With their centralized administration in Persepolis they oversaw the collection of tributes from vassal states and built new roads to improve trade. They were also very multicultural and did not persecute their conquered states yet practiced a policy of tolerance. Darius the Great introduced a new system of coin currency as well as measuring scales. Many of his conquests  were engraved in the Behistun Inscription on Mount Behistun, which is used today as a codex to the old Persian language and culture. Their religion of Zoroastrianism, based on their prophet Zoraster, became commonplace for all their people. 

The Ionian Revolt of 499 BC ushered in a new threat to the mighty Persian Empire where the Greek city-states began uprising against their occupiers. While the Persian Empire was able to crush this early revolt it began a new military conflict known as the Greco-Persian Wars. Most famous from the movie depictions of King Leonidas' 300 Spartans or the video game Assassins Creed Odyssey. I have written various times about the Greek-Persian conflicts usually from the Greek perspective, but in this case it's now from the Persian perspective. King Darius began to see Greece as a new threat with these ongoing uprisings and planned a new campaign to invade the entire region. However in 490 BC the Greeks achieved one of their first major victories over the Persians at the Battle of Marathon. King Darius died shortly after and left the invasion to his son Xerxes.

Xerxes led the invasion of Greece in 480 BC with one of the largest armies the world had ever seen. He easily rolled thru Macedonia and Thessaly but was confronted by a stubborn force of Spartan warriors led by King Leonidas at Thermopylae. Nonetheless the Persians were still able to defeat the Greeks at Thermopylae and sacked the city of Athens. However shortly after their navy was defeated by the Greeks at Battle of Salamis and their army was decisively beaten at the Battle of Plataea. This led to Xerxes retreat and the end of the Greek invasion. It also marked one of the first major defeats for the Persian Empire in over 70 years.  

From this point on the Persian Empire withdrew their military campaigns to focus on their infrastructure. This included new building projects as well as new alliances with the enemies of Greece, who they now saw as their greatest threat. The Persians first sided with the Spartans in the Peloponnesian Civil War of 431-401 BC, and then later sided with Athens during the Corinthian Civil War from 395-387 BC. Under the reign of Artaxerxes III the Persian's lead a 2nd conquest of Egypt and sustained great wealth from this campaign. Artaxerxes was able to squash various rebellions and threats to his empire throughout his lifetime. However a new power had arisen in the region of Macedonia led by Philip II.

While King Philip had planned to invade the Persian Empire, he was assassinated in 336 BC before he could put his plans in motion. However his son, Alexander the Great would later take on his father's goal with great ambition. Darius III had arisen to the throne as a distant family member and a successful general. However he was no match for the Macedonian's new age tactics and his armies were defeated by Alexander first at the Battle of Granicus (334 BC), then at the Battle of Issus (333 BC), and decisively at the battle of Gaugamela (331 BC). With this victory Darius fled into the deserts where he was later killed by his own men. Alexander marched into the cities of Persepolis and Babylon which thus brought an end to the Persian Empire. 

Seleucid Empire, Parthian Empire, and Sasanian Empire

From this point on the Middle Eastern territory of Mesopotamia became controlled by European influence for some time. This period known as the Hellenistic Age, brought new westernized culture and ideas into the Middle East. A new cultural exchange and fusion occurred in the Middle East beginning with the Macedonian's occupation. Alexander the Great was very tolerant and welcoming of the Persian culture, and even took one as his wife to inspire a new age of peace between the west and the east. The Macedonian conquest was rather short-lived as Alexander died in 323 BC, at the young age of 33. The region of Mesopotamia was then transferred to a new Greek dynasty to establish the Seleucid Empire.

Still under Hellenistic influence, Seleucus Nicator, who served as a general under Alexander, became the new ruler of the Seleucid Empire in 312 BC. His territory stretched from the Black Sea, beyond the Mesopotamia into far eastern lands of present day Afghanistan and Pakistan, bordering the Indian Mauryan Empire. The city of Antioch became the new capital of the Empire, located on the southern coast of Turkey, it served as a booming Hellenistic gateway between Europe and Asia. The main adversaries of the Seleucid Empire were the Ptolemaic Egyptian Kingdom and the Indian Mauryan Kingdom. The Empire lasted until 63 BC where it was overthrown by the mighty Roman Republic. 

While the Seleucid Empire was swallowed up by the Roman Empire, the Parthian Empire briefly rose to prominence in 124 BC under the reign of Mithridates II. Also known as Mithridates the Great he was eager to reestablish Persian customs throughout the land of Mesopotamia. The Parthians frequently fought with the Seleucid Empire as well as the Roman Republic. After the Seleucid Empire fell, the Parthians were the last stranding stronghold in the Middle East that fought against Rome from 54 BC until their eventual collapse in 217 AD. The Parthians were not defeated by the Romans yet rather overthrown internally by Ardashir who then established the Sasanian Empire in 226 AD.

The Sasanian Empire was the last ancient civilization of the Middle East before the age of Muhammad and the caliphs. Based in modern day Iraq and Iran the empire reestablished the former glory of the Persian Empire and withstood for over 400 years. They were able to repel countless attacks from the Roman and later Byzantine Empire to their west. Similar to the Parthian Empire, the Sasanian Empire sought to restore Iranian traditions and return to their ancient religious practice of Zoroastrianism. The empire underwent several golden eras of renaissance with influential art, architecture, literature, and philosophy that promoted the Arab ideals. Bahram V was one of the most popular of the Sasanian kings, celebrated in Iranian literature. Much of this culture was later adopted by their conquerors the Rashidun Caliphate in 651 AD.