Hagiography: The 14 Holy Helpers

I think my fascination with Saint George actually began last fall as I was reading The Historian, a fiction about Vlad the Impaler. Much of the story took place in Romania and Bulgaria, and the country people adored St. George. I've always admired the mythical element of his slaying the dragon but I was never too familiar with the story. Then as I took on this medieval phase I discovered he was once again at the forefront of military superstition. Commanders and their soldiers would cry out to St George as they began their assaults hoping he would bring them fortune. There were other saints like this as well during the Medieval days that were extremely popular for intercession. They were called upon for battle during the Hundred Years War but also to protect them during the terrible plague known as the Black Death. They are referred to as the 14 Holy Helpers.

I found everyone of these hagiographical stories to be quite unique and entertaining. They infuse historical characters who lived during the Roman Persecutions with mythical legends. It's no doubt that each of these 14 saints existed and showed some form of devotion to Christ. However some of their stories have been exaggerated into folk legends of divine intervention; such as Saint Denis walking with his chopped head, or Saint Margaret beating the devil with a hammer, or Saint George slaying a dragon. I think it's great allegorical tales, no different then the Old Testament legends of Noah, Moses, and Joshua. While the details might be farfetched, the core message is still there. These are all martyrs (except for Saint Giles who was accidentally killed) who gave themselves completely to Christ.

The Fourteen Helpers

Saint Eustace

• Years: 70-118 AD
  
• Nationality: Rome (Roman Empire)
• Life: This was likely a legendary tale of a high ranking Roman general named Eustace serving under emperor Trajan who was a devout pagan. However one day while hunting he received a vision from Jesus as a stag (where there was a crucifix between the antlers). The voice of Jesus asked him why do you persecute me? At this Placidus felt the presence of the lord and completely converted and changed his name to Eustace (similar to St. Paul). He even had his family baptized. However Jesus warned Eustace that his faith would be tested and he would suffer the same way as Job did in the Old Testament. Eustace then lost his wealth, his title, his wife is taken by a ship captain, and his two sons are taken by wild animals. Eustace goes into isolation, yet despite all this tribulation he remains faithful to the lord. Eventually the emperor calls for him to lead his army, where he is miraculously reunited with his wife and sons who are all still alive. The emperor then demands sacrifice to the Roman gods, but when Eustace refuses he is sentenced to death. His martyrdom is a noteworthy death, where he is placed inside a bronze bull and roasted to death. Although it is legendary it is still a great story of preserving the faith despite the hardships that arise.
• Cause of Death: Burned to death
• Patronage: Fire protection, hunters, trappers, against family discord, difficult situations
• Symbols: Bull, horn, stag, oven
• Feast Day: Sept 20
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica di Sant'Eustachio (Rome, Italy)- 8th century- Considered his primary shrine with his relics, and a facade of a deer's head with a cross between the antlers
• Eglise Saint-Eustache (Paris, France)- 1532-1633- One of the largest and most impressive churches in Paris next to Notre Dame. Contains some of his relics.

Saint Denis

• 
  Years: 220- 258 (38 years)
• Nationality: Rome, Roman Empire
  
• Life: He was a Roman missionary who arrived to Gaul to become the first bishop of Paris. The majority of Paris was still very pagan at the time and he faced heavy opposition to his faith. Despite these warnings he continued to openly preach the word of Christ. He eventually caught the attention of the Roman authorities under emperor Decian, who began to persecute him. He was arrested, tried, and condemned to death. Perhaps his greatest claim to fame is the manner of which he was martyred. He we beheaded by sword, however according to legend he miraculously picked up his head and continued preaching a sermon. He continued walking for some time, and once he finished his sermon he lay down to die on his own terms. Of course this is likely a mythical aspect, however he is still regarded as a historical saint. He is one of the fourteen holy helper saints and is the Patron Saint of France.
• Cause of Death: Beheaded
• Patronage: Paris, headaches, strife, hydrophobia, possessed people
• Symbols: Bishop robes, carrying his head
• Feast Day: October 9
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica of Saint-Denis (Paris, France)- 636; Rebuilt in 1135- His primary shrine that contains his tomb and other relics
• Martyrium of Saint Denis (Paris, France)- 475- Chapel that is considered the site of his martyrdom
• Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Bad Staffelstein, Germany)- 1743-1772

Saint Christopher

• Years: 220-251 AD
• 
  Nationality: Lycia (Roman Asia Minor)
  
• Life: This is very likely a legendary tale that emerged in the 250-300s. Saint Christopher was a giant from Canaanite who faithfully served his king. Canaan was a biblical region in the Old Testament that no longer existed at this time, but could also mean he was a pagan . When he saw his king was afraid of the devil, he went to confront the devil, and instead was convinced to follow the devil. He quickly learns however that the devil is afraid of the sign of the Cross which confirms that Christ must be stronger. He then sets out to find Christ thru prayer and fasting. He eventually comes to a large river, where a small child asks him to carry him across. Christopher carries the young child on his shoulders, but the river is powerful and they both nearly drown. The child reveals that he is not only carrying him, but also the weight of the world (thus indicating that he is Jesus Christ). This is how he gets his name of Christopher which means Christ-bearer. He is later martyred in very cruel fashion by putting him on a red-hot iron chair and even making him wear a heated iron helmet. He somehow survives all this torture but is eventually killed by beheadeding. His historical credibility is questionable, and in eastern tradition he is depicted with the head of a dog to imply this. He is considered one of the more popular saints during the medieval age known as the Fourteen Helpers.
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Athletes, bachelors, transportation, traveling, surfing, storms, gardeners, toothaches, epilepsy
• Symbols: Tree branch, giants, carry Child on his shoulders, spears, dog-headed man.
• Feast Day: July 24
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica of the Fourteen Helpers (Bad Staffelstein, Germany)- 1743-1772. Dedicated to the fourteen helpers with shrines

St. Erasmus (Elmo)

• Years: 250-303 (53 years)
  
• Nationality: Formia, Roman Empire
• Life: He was a bishop of Formia, who decided to hide in the mountains during the ongoing Diocletian Persecution. He hid there for seven years, until an angel appeared to him and convinced him to return to the city to bravely face his enemies. On his return trip he was captured by Roman soldiers, imprisoned, but an angel helped him escape. He then passed thru Lycia, Anatolia and converted many other people thru miraculous healings and baptisms. He was once again captured there, enclosed in a barrel of spikes and rolled down a hill. He survived once again thru the intervention of an angel. In Illyricum he converted many more pagans to Christianity but was once again arrested. This time he was famously disemboweled and had his intestines pulled out by a rotating windlass. This horrific death was likely exaggerated however it is one of his most recognizable details. For this alone he is one of the 14 Holy Helpers called upon for stomach sickness and electrical storms (which sailors referred to as St. Elmos Fire).
• Cause of Death: Disembowelment
• Patronage: Sailors, stomach sickness, women in labor
• Symbols: Intensines being pulled by a windlass, bishop robes
• Feast Day: June 2
• Famous Churches:
• Cathedral of Saint Erasmus and Marcia (Gaeta, Italy)- 11 th century- Contains his main relics and burial tomb.
• Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Bad Staffelstein, Germany)- 1743-1772

Saint Blaise

• Years: 260-316 AD
• Nationality: Sebastea, Armenia
• 
  Life: He was a doctor in the city of Sebastea, Armenia (present day Sivas, Turkey). He spent several years studying medicine in a cave where he prayed to Christ and practiced medicine. During this time he healed many people as well as animals thru the divine intervention. The people came to admire him and he was later elected bishop of Sebastea. However the Roman emperor sent a Roman prefect to persecute Christians in the region which included St. Blaise. Despite imprisonment and torture with iron combs he refused to renounce Christ. As he was being marched to his death in the city streets, a woman presented her sick child hoping he could heal her. The child was choking on a fishbone and Blaise said a prayer to miraculously heal the child. This was his claim to fame and he forever became the patron saint of throat sickness. He was eventually beheaded and became a martyr. He is one of the 14 Holy Helpers called upon for protection against throat sickness and animals. The blessing of St. Blaise is a famous tradition now in some churches which includes two candles crossed over someone's throat to protect them from illness.
  
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Infants, animals, throat sickness, builders, stonecutters, wool, choking, veterinarians, illness
• Symbols: Bishop robes, animals, crossed candles, wool comb, choking boy
• Feast Day: Feb 3
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica di San Biago (Maratea, Italy)- 732- Considered his primary shrine with many of his relics. He is the patron saint of Maratea.
• St. Blaise's Church (Dubrovnik, Croatia)- 1706- Has many of St. Blaise's relics as well as the tomb of St. Silvan.
• Church of San Biago (Montepulciano, Tuscany)- 1518
• Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Bad Staffelstein, Germany)- 1743-1772

St. Cyracius

• 
  Years: 260-303 (43 years)
  
• Nationality: Rome, Roman Empire
• Life: He was a Roman nobleman who converted to Christianity in his adult years and gave away his material wealth to the poor. He was ordained a deacon under Pope Marcellinus where he ministered mostly to the slaves in the Baths of Diocletian. He is also credited with preforming exorcisms. However in the year 303, co-emperors Diocletian and Maximiam issued harsh edicts against Christians that led to the Diocletian Persecution. This is considered the final severe purge of Christians before Constantine came to power. Cyracius was ultimately tortured and beheaded for not renouncing Christ. He was martyred with 27 other saints, including St. Erasmus. He is one the 14 Holy Helpers called for protection against demons.
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Temptation on the deathbed, viticulture
• Symbols: Deacon robes, book of exorcism
• Feast Day: June 7
• Famous Churches:
• Santa Maria in Via Lata (Rome, Italy)- 4th century- Although dedicated to Saint Mary, this is considered his primary shrine with relics
• Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Bad Staffelstein, Germany)- 1743-1772

Saint Barbara

• Years: 270-306 (36 years)
• Nationality: Heliopolis, Syria
• 
  Life: This is likely another legendary story about a wealthy woman named Barbara who was locked in a tower by her pagan father. Her father sought to maintain her virginity and keep suitors away. While in the tower she came to appreciate nature and the monastic lifestyle which inspired her to convert to Christianity. During this time she was visited by a priest in disguise who baptized her while in the tower. Barbara later requested a third window be added to her tower which was to represent the Holy Trinity. When her father returned he questioned her motives, and she confessed her faith. He then had her dragged to the authorities, arrested, tortured, and executed. Each night her dark cell was miraculously illuminated with light and her wounds were healed. She was eventually beheaded by her own father, however immediately after the exeuction he was struck down dead by lightning. Despite her martydom her story is considered more legendary then historical. She is regarded as one of the 14 Holy Helpers popular during the Middle Ages.
  
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Architects, armorers, artillery, fireworks, firemen, mathematicians, miners, chemical engineers, prisoners
• Symbols: Three window tower, palm, chalice, lightning, crown of martyrdom
• Feast Day: Dec 4
• Famous Churches:
• St. Barbara's Church (Krakow, Poland)- 1338-1402- One of the most important churches dedicated to her that became a center for the Brotherhood of St. Barbara
• Mission Santa Barbara (Santa Barbara, California)- 1786- Franciscan missionary that was established on the feast day of St. Barbara
• Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Bad Staffelstein, Germany)- 1743-1772

Saint Acacius (Agathius)

• Years: 270-303 AD (33 years)
  
• 
  Nationality: Cappadocia, Roman Empire
• Life: He was a Roman soldier who was Christian, during the years of Diocletian's heavy persecution. He was eventually discovered for not worshiping the pagan gods, and was forced to face Roman authorities. He refused to renounce his beliefs despite imprisonment and torture. He was eventually beheaded for his faith and became a martyr. During the middle ages he was later considered a heroic saint for his courage under pressure. He is one of the 14 holy helper saints often called upon during battle. He's one of the more famous Roman soldier saints alongside Longinus.
• Cause of Death: Beheaded
• Patronage: Battle, Soldiers, headaches
• Symbols: Wearing armor, Cross, palm branch, sword
• Feast Day: May 7
• Famous Churches:
• Cathedral of Squillace (Calabria, Italy)- 630- Has many of his relics and shrines preserved here.
• Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Bad Staffelstein, Germany)- 1743-1772

Saint Pantaleon

• Years: 275-305 (30 years)
• Nationality: Nicomedia, Turkey
• 
  Life: He was the son of a rich pagan, whose mother was a secret Christian. Pantaleon studied medicine and became a skilled physician. He later met an elder priest named Hermolaus who asked him if knowledge heals or if it is thru God. Feeling unsure of himself Pantaleon then called upon God to help him heal a young boy that had been bitten by a snake. The child was immediately healed and Pantaleon became a devout follower of Christ. He eventually began healing the sick at no charge, all in the name of the God. Eventually the other physicians grew jealous at his successful healings and began to question his methods. This case made it's way up to Emperor Maximian who was eager to persecute Christians. Pantaleon faced a trial by faith, in which he was able to heal a man thru Christ, while the pagan priests were not. Nonetheless he was still tortured in various methods, and somehow miraculously escaped each attempt. Even upon his beheading the blade bent. Knowing his end was at hand, Pantelon told the executioner to try again, and this time the strike fell true. He is regarded as one of the 14 Holy Helpers who treats the sick and poor.
  
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Physicians, apothecaries, midwives, livestock, lottery, headaches, accidents, loneliness, crying children
• Symbols: Medicine box, spatula, spoon, martyr's cross
• Feast Day: July 27
• Famous Churches: 
• Chiesa di San Pantaleone Martire (Venice, Italy)- 12th century- Dedicated to St. Pantaleon. Largest canvas ceiling in the world
• St. Pantaleon's Church (Cologne, Germany)- 10th century- Oldest church dedicated to St. Pantaleon.
• St. Panteleimon Monastery (Mount Athos, Greece)- 11th century- Primary Russian monastery
• Pantaleon Monastery (Jordan Desert)- 6th century- Site of his burial tomb. Built by emperor Justinian
• Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Bad Staffelstein, Germany)- 1743-1772

Saint George

• Years: 275-303 (28 years)
  
• Nationality: Anatolia, Turkey
• 
  Life: He is one of the most popular saints of the medieval age, regarded as the holy warrior. He joined the Roman Army where he quickly climbed ranks within the Praetorian Guard to become an office. His greatest claim to fame was slaying a dragon that was reeking havoc on a town in Libya. Legend has it the town had to feed the dragon sheep and children to keep the peace. When the king's daughter was selected she appealed to Saint George to save her. George made a deal with the king, that he would save the town if they all converted to Christianity which they gladly did. He then killed the dragon with a lance. Despite this heroic deed, George later faced persecution from the Roman emperor Diocletian. He was eventually tortured, dragged thru the streets, and beheaded for not worshiping the Roman pagan Gods.
• Cause of Death: Beheaded
• Patronage: Soldiers, Cavalry, leprosy, sheep, shepherds, farmers, armor, England, Georgia, Bulgaria, Ethiopia, Palestine
• Symbols: Crusader in armor, lance, dragon, Saint George's cross
• Feast Day: April 23
• Famous Churches:
• Church of St. George (Lod, Israel) 5th Century- Burial site of St. George
• St. George Cathedral (Timisoara, Romania) 1736-1774
• St. George's Monastery (Al Khader, Palestine)
• St. George's Chapel (Winsdor, England) 1475- part of Windsor Castle

Saint Catherine of Alexandria

• Years: 287-305 (18 years)
  
• 
  Nationality: Alexandria, Egypt (Roman-Egypt)
• Life: She was a brilliant noblewoman who completely dedicated to Christ after receiving a vision from God. She was renown for her intellectual ability and was later challenged by the Pagan priests. She debated nearly 50 of the top pagan philosophers at a time, and was able to best them all. Many of which were so impressed with her knowledge of Christ, that they themselves converted to Christianity (many of which are quickly executed for their failure). Catherine is also sentenced to death by the spiked breaking wheel, however the deadly mechanism breaks thru divine intervention. She is then executed by beheading. According to legend, upon her beheading, milk shot out from her neck instead of blood.
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Unmarried girls, apologists, potters, spinners, archivists, educators, jurists, librarians, mechanics, philosophers, scholars, students, school,
• Symbols: Breaking wheel, sword, crown at her feet, hailstones, bridal veil and ring, dove, surrounded by angels, scourge, book
• Feast Day: November 25
• Famous Churches:
• Saint Catherine Monastery (Sinai, Egypt)- 548- Believed to be the location of her tomb with many relics.

Saint Margaret the Virgin

• 
  Years: 289-304 (15 years)
  
• Nationality: Antioch, Turkey
• Life: She was a beautiful young teenager who choose the virtuous life in devotion to Christ. Her father was a pagan priest and he was greatly shamed and disappointed by her conversion. Furthermore a Roman official came on to her and had her arrested for not worshipping the pagan gods. She was even tortured in the prison chambers where she was visited by a dragon (representing the devil). She famously fought with the dragon, who swallowed her, however with her cross she was able to break free and defeat it. Despite enduring several trials of torture she was eventually beheaded. She became a feminine hero, and one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers called upon during the medieval age.    
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Pregnant women, nurses, peasants, exiles, kidney disease
• Symbols: Slaying a dragon or demon, hammer
• Feast Day: July 20
• Famous Churches:
• Saint Margaret's Westminster Church (London, England)- 12th century

Saint Vitus

• Years: 290-303 (13 years)
• 
  Nationality: Luciana, Italy
  
• Life: This is another of the legendary 14 helper saints popular during the Medieval Ages (especially Central Europe). He was born of a noble family from Sicily and became a devout Christian as a child thru his tutor. He refused to renounce Christ despite pressure from his pagan parents. He later fled to southern Italy, but was captured, arrested, tortured, and executed. According to legend he survived multiple torture attempts thru boiling water, wild animals, and savage beatings all thru divine intervention. Vitus eventually died from one of these methods, likely beheading (he was only 13 years old). His patronage to healing came after his death, where people prayed to him during the Black Death. He was especially associated to epilepsy, convulsions, and seizers which is how the St. Vitus Dance tradition began. People would often dance at his statue during festivals. Because of this tradition he not only became a saint of sickness but also a saint of music and dance. In retrospect his martyrdom was no different then thousands of others with hardly any mention of healing or dancing. However his legend grew after his death thru cultural practice.
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Actors, comedians, Czechia, Croatia, dancers, dogs, epilepsy, oversleeping, Prague, snake bites, storms, Germany
• Symbols: Cauldron, Rooster, lion
• Feast Day: June 15
• Famous Churches:
• St. Vitus Cathedral (Prague, Czechia)- 930- Contains relics of St. Vitus. One of the most iconic cathedrals in Europe
• Abbey of Corvey (Hoxter, Germany)- 836- Also contains main relics of St. Vitus
• Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Bad Staffelstein, Germany)- 1743-1772

Saint Giles

• 
  Years: 650-710 (60 years)
  
• Nationality: Athens, Greece
• Life: The story of Saint Giles is likely one of a real historical monk that was turned into legend. He was a Christian from Athens, Greece but migrated to Arles, France that was under the control of the Visigoth Kingdom. He lived the aesthetic life in the forests of southern France in constant prayer and reflection. His only companion was a red deer, who provided him with warm milk and friendship. One day the Visigoth king Wamba went on a hunting party and chased after the red deer. He shot an arrow at the deer but it missed and struck St. Giles instead. The king quickly apologized and offered Giles medical treatment, but Giles refused and lived with the pain of the wound for some time. As a token of humility the king Wamba built Giles a monastery which he became abbot of a Benedictian order. He died shortly after the establishment of this monastery and is regarded as a Holy Helper for the handicap. Since his wound was accidental he's more of a monastic saint than a martyr saint, however I'm going to include here for the sake of the Holy 14.
• Cause of Death: Arrow wound
• Patronage: Beggars, blacksmiths, breast cancer, cancer, disabled people, forests, hermits, mental illness, outcasts, poor people, deer, Edinburgh
• Symbols: Arrow, deer, hermitage, hind
• Feast Day: Sept 1
• Famous Churches:
• Abbey of Saint Giles (Saint Giles, France)- 7th century- Monastery that was built by King Wamba, dedicated to Saint Giles. He is buried here in a crypt.
• St. Giles Cathedral (Edinburg, Scotland)- 1124-1243- One of the most impressive and historic churches in Scotland
• Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Bad Staffelstein, Germany)- 1743-1772

Hagiography: The Early Church Martyrs

So now I'd like to focus on the Martyr saints that began immediately after the resurrection of Jesus Christ. This topic has extra interest for me, since St. Stephen (my namesake) was the first martyr. He could be included alongside the other apostles and disciples as the protomartyrs. They are defined as Christian followers who are killed willingly because of their faith. However I'm also going to include the Holy Innocents in this post, as they unwillingly died because of Christ. They are the unique case of martyrdom, as those who died in fact, but not in will. They were just children who had no knowledge of Christ, and yet still died for him and became holy saints. Whereas the rest of the martyrs willingly chose to die for Christ.

As I've laid out the groundwork for this post I've noticed there are different cases pertaining to the historical time period. Most of your early foundational martyrs were persecuted by the Jews or Romans since they were considered blasphemers. However after Constantine the Great accepts Christianity the criteria for martyrdom somewhat changed. It became more political in nature, where the cause of their faith was almost secondary to their political influence (examples: Saint Thomas Becket or Saint Oscar Romero). So I've decided to break up my martyrdom study into three distinct categories: The Early Roman Martyrs; the Medieval Martyrs; and the Modern Political Martyrs. I'm not going to include the apostles here, since I categorized them as witnesses of Christ in my last post. I'm also going to separate the 14 Holy Helpers, who were persecuted by the Romans but became extremely popular during the Middle Ages and beyond. 

Martyrs in Fact

Holy Innocents

• 
  Years: 4-2 BC (Under 2 years old)
• Nationality: Bethlehem, Israel
• Life: King Herod the Great had become aware of the prophecy of the coming Messiah and began to fear for his kingdom. He thus ordered that all male children in Bethlehem aged 0-2 were to be massacred. While some medieval estimates range up to 14,000 it's more likely to be around 30 children present in Bethlehem at the time that were killed by sword or dagger. These poor children were thus killed because of Christ, and are considered the first holy martyrs (even though they had no awareness of Christ). They are also considered the rare exception of "proto-martyrs" because they died because of Christ and not for Christ.
• Cause of Death: Sword or dagger
  
• Patronage: Foundlings, babies, choirs
• Symbols: Martyrs palm, crown of martyrdom, angelic children
• Feast Day: December 28
• Famous Churches:
• Church of the Nativity (Bethlehem, Israel)- 326 AD- Has a chapel within the church dedicated to the Holy Innocents
• Basilica of Sant'Eustorgio (Milan, Italy)- 4th century- Has many relics, paintings, and chapels pertaining to the nativity, the Magi, and the Holy Innocents
• Church of the Holy Innocents (Chicago, USA)- 1905- one of the largest churches dedicated entirely to the Holy Innocents

Proto-Martyrs

Saint Stephen

• 
  Years: 5-36 AD (27 years)
• Nationality: Jerusalem, Judea
• Life: He was a deacon and famously the first martyr after he publicly preached of the glory of Christ which defied a group of Jewish rabbi. The Jewish council considered his words to be blasphemy and had him stoned to the death on the spot. According to legend he died like an angel and forgave his persecutors in the similar fashion as Jesus did. The prophet Saul witnessed the whole event unfold and was then inspired to continue the ministry of the teachings of Christ under the new name of Paul the Apostle.
  
• Cause of Death: Stoned to death
• Patronage: Altar servers, headaches, deacons, bricklayers, horses
• Symbols: Stones, Palm branches, deacon robes
• Feast Day: December 26th
• Famous Churches:
• The Church of St. Stephen (Jerusalem, Israel) Built in the 400s as the site of St. Stephen's martyrdom and burial
• St Stephen's Cathedral (Vienna, Austria) 1137-1578- Beautiful cathederal that towers over Vienna
• Bourges Cathedral (Bourges, France) 1195-1230

Saint Ignatius of Antioch

• Years: 35-108 (73 years)
• Nationality: Syria (Roman Empire)
• 
  Life: He was an apostle of John and later became a bishop of Antioch. He is considered one of the early fathers of the church, and played a pivotal role in establishing it's structure (the clergy heriarchy, the eucharist, and early warnings against heresy). His rise to fame was quickly opposed by the Roman emperor Trajan who insisted he worship the Roman pagan Gods. When Ignatius refused he was taken prisoner and fed to lions in the iconic Colosseum. He famously welcomed the beasts and died a martyr.
  
• Cause of Death: Eaten by lions
• Patronage: Church of North Africa, Church of East Mediterranean
• Symbols: Surronded by lions in chains
• Feast Day: Dec 20
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica of San Clemente (Rome, Italy)- 1108-1203- Despite being dedicated to Pope Clement it still houses many relics pertaining to Saint Ignatius including his tomb
• Colosseum (Rome, Italy)- This was the site of his martyrdom

Saint Polycarp

• Years: 69-155 AD (86 years)
• Nationality: Smyrna, Anatolia (Roman Empire)
• 
  Life: He was a disciple of John the Apostle, who carried on his preaching and gospel. He later became Bishop of Smyrna (a booming trade hub in Anatolia) at an elder age of 80. The practice of Christianity was still considered quite illegal by the Roman authorities at this time, and he was eventually persecuted. Instead of fleeing Polycarp boldly welcomed the Roman guards with food and drink, then requested to pray. During his trial, he was offered a chance at freedom if he rejected Christianity as atheism, however Polycarp instead pointed to the Roman pagans as the true atheists. According to legend at his execution he requested not to be tied to the stake, so he could accept the flames willingly in the name of God. The flames however danced around him and would not touch him. At this point he was killed by one of the Roman soldiers by sword.
• Cause of Death: Sword
  
• Patronage: Ear aches
• Symbols: Pallium, holding a gospel book,
• Feast Day:
• Famous Churches:
• Church of St. Polycarp (Smyrna, Turkey)- 1625- The site of Polycarp's martyrdom
• Sant'Ambrogio della Massima (Rome, Italy)- 4th century- Dedicated to Ambrose but contains some of Polycarp's relics.

Saint Justin Martyr

• Years: 90-165 AD
  
• Nationality: Judea, Roman Empire
• 
  Life: He was a Greek philosopher, a pagan, who helped bridge the gap between Greek philosophy and Christian theology. He was instantly converted one day when an old man questioned why philosophers always disagree with one another, and yet Christ fulfilled the prophecy of the Hebrew testament. Justin then dove into theological studies and began teaching this as the one true faith. He wrote several famous works include the First Apology (155 AD). He openly debated with philosophers, pagans, and Jews about the undeniable truth of Jesus Christ. He is eventually arrested with other of his followers for his outspoken passion on the matter. He willingly faces his martyrdom by renouncing the pagan Gods as impious to the one true God.
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Philosophers
• Symbols: Book, scroll, philosopher's attire, teaching gesture, martyr's palm
• Feast Day: June 1st
• Famous Churches:
• Church of San Giustino (Rome, Italy)- 1952-1953- Considered the site of his school or his martyrdom. Contains many of his relics.

Martyrs of the Roman Empire

Saint Blandina

• Years: 162-177
• 
  Nationality: Lyon, Roman Gaul (France)
• Life: During the reign of Marcus Aurelius persecutions continued, in this case in the Roman city of Lyons, Gaul (present day France). Blandina was a young slave devout in her Christian faith, and faced cruel interrogation and torture. She boldly declared that she is Christian and we commit no wrong. She was eventually was sent to a public execution at the amphitheater, to be tied to a stake and exposed to wild beasts and bulls. She stood there calm, praying, and welcoming her deliverance to the lord. The crowd watched with amazement as she was killed by the beasts but stood resilient. While there were many Martyrs of Lyon she is the most famous for her courage and victorious manner in welcoming her death for Christ.
• Cause of Death: Scourged by wild animals
• Patronage: Enslaved, oppressed, victims of torture and abuse, endurance
• Symbols: Bull, tied to a pillar, bear
• Feast Day: June 2
• Famous Churches:
• Church of Saint Blandina (Lyon, France)- 19th century- Primary church dedicated to Saint Blandina and the Martyrs of Lyon

Saint Perpetua and Felicity

• Years: 182-203 (21 years)
  
• 
  Nationality: Carthage (Roman Empire)
• Life: Perpetua was a noblewoman from Carthage who began following Christ despite her father's protests. She began receiving visions including a ladder to heaven, her deceased brother at peace in prayer, and herself as gladiator fighting against an evil monster. She was eventually arrested alongside several other Christians including a pregnant slave named Felicity. Both gave birth before they were sent to the arena for a public death. Both were eventually gored by a bull, however reacted calmly, and stood by one another side-by-side as they were later killed by sword.
• Cause of Death: March 7
• Patronage: Mothers, ranchers, butchers, Carthage
• Symbols: Books, ladder, serpant, infant child
• Feast Day: Feb 1
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica of Saints Perpetua and Felicity (Rome, Italy)- 4th century- Dedicated to both women as one of the earliest martyr churches in Rome.

Saint Cecilia

• Years: 200-222 (22 years)
• 
  Nationality: Rome, Italy
  
• Life: She was another young virgin saint, completely dedicated to Christ at a young age. She was renown for her beautiful voice which she sang for God. However her parents forced her into a marriage despite her protests. Yet this is a rare story of love, in which the husband (Valerian) did not force himself upon her. Instead he honored her desire of purity and was so convinced by her faith that he too chose a life of devotion to Christ. Her husband Valerian is martyred first for his faith, then his brother Tiburtius. Cecilia is arrested several days later and is unsuccessfully beheaded. She survives the sword blows for three days preaching the word of the lord before she dies of the wounds. She is considered the patron saint of music.
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Sacred music, organs, singers, musicians, poets
• Symbols: Flute, organ, roses, violin, harp, harpsichord, songbord, singing
• Feast Day: November 22
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica of Saint Cecilia (Rome, Italy)- 817-819- The primary church of her burial place. It has undergone several renovations as far back as the 4th century.
• Albi Cathedral (Albi, France)- 1282-1480- Built in the aftermath of the Albigensian Crusade dedicated to Saint Cecilia. To this day it is regarded as the largest brick building in the world. 

Saint Cyprian

• 
  Years: 210-258
  
• Nationality: Carthage, Roman Empire
• Life: He was born into a pagan family in Carthage and did not convert to Christianity until his 40s. He was already very well educated and quickly ascended to the post of bishop due to his quick understanding of the Christian theology. During the Decian persecutions of 250 AD he fled for his safety but also the work he had down for the church. When he returned to his post he faced heavy scrutiny of cowardice for not standing up for his beliefs like many other martyrs had. He pushed for forgiveness thru repentance and continued to fully devout himself to the unity of the church. In 258 a 2nd wave of persecutions eventually caught up with him under Emperor Valerian. This time he did not run away but bravely faced his accusers to meet his death by beheading.
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: North Africa, church administrators
• Symbols: Bishop robes, sword, palm brance, books
• Feast Day: Sept 16
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica of Saint Cyprian (ruins)- 380-400 AD (Destroyed during Arab conquest 698)- considered the site of his martyrdom

Saint Lawrence

• 
  Years: 225-258 (32 years)
• Nationality: Valencia, Spain
  
• Life: St. Lawrence first encountered Pope Sixtus II in Zaragoza, and traveled with him from Spain to Rome. There he was later appointed as a deacon working under Pope Sixtus II during the reign of Roman emperor Valerian. In the year 258 Valerian issued an edict to have many Christians executed (which included Sixtus and St. Lawrence). Before executing St. Lawrence they demanded he hand over all the church's valuables. St. Lawrence famously denied this request and gave all the treasures of the church to the poor and sick. He then suffered a terrible martyrdom being tortured and burned on a metal gridiron. He was famously resilient throughout his torture and famously told the prefect's to "turn him over as he was done on one side". He is often associated with St. Stephen (another deacon who was martyred) and is buried in the same church.
• Cause of Death: Tortured, Burned
• Patronage: Open fires, cooks, bakers, tanners, archivists, miners, poor people, comedians
• Symbols: Gridiron, priest robes
• Feast Day: Aug 10
• Famous Churches: 
• St. Lawrence Outside the Walls (Rome, Italy)- 6th century- Holds tomb and relics of St. Lawrence. One of the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome.
• San Lorenzo in Lucina (Rome, Italy)- 4th century- Has the famous gridiron relic that burned St. Lawrence
• Trogir Cathedral (Trogir, Croatia)- 13th century
• San Lorenzo in Panisperna (Rome, Italy)- 5th century- Site of his martyrdom

Saint Valentine

• 
  Years: 225-270 (43 years)
• Nationality: Rome, Italy
  
• Life: He was a priest from Rome, who was eventually martyred for openly preaching and converting people to Christianity. His greatest claim to fame was miraculously healing the blind daughter of a jail guard. He converts both the guard and his daughter, and writers her letter signed "your valentine". He is later condemned and executed for refusing to renounce Christ. The connection to being the patron saint of love and romance came much later during the medieval age. His association to romance was made famous by the poet Geoffrey Chaucer who wrote of birds courting on his already established feast day of Feb 14. So it wasn't so much his actions but more so his feast day that fell during the bird's mating season. By the 1700s this feast day evolved into one of popular culture to exchange romantic gestures with loved ones.
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Marriage, romance, couples, against fainting, beekeepers, plague, epilepsy, blindness
• Symbols: Birds, roses, bishop with a crippled person, rooster, priest bearing a sword or sun, giving sight to the blind
• Feast Day: Feb 14
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica of Saint Valentine on the Via Flaminia (Rome, Italy)- 1606-1618- Has many relics dedicated to him as well as his tomb
• Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church (Dublin, Ireland)- 1825- Contains bones and relics of St. Valentine

Saint Agatha

• 
  Years: 231-251 (20 years)
  
• Nationality: Sicily (Roman Empire)
• Life: She was a beautiful noble 15 year old girl, who made a vow to stay chaste in the name of God. However the Roman governor found her very desirable and made numerous advances at her. Since she would not give herself up to him willingly he had her arrested for being a Christian. He then had her tortured and famously removed her breasts. She was later visited by the spirit of Saint Peter who healed her. She was to be sentenced to burn at the stake, however a powerful earthquake disrupted this event. She was continuously tortured however including having her body racked and dragged over coals. She eventually succumbed to her injuries and died a virgin martyr.
• Cause of Death: Torture
• Patronage: breast cancer, bakers, nurses, virgins, rape victims, natural disaster, fire, earthquakes
• Symbols: pincers, breasts
• Feast Day: Feb 5
• Famous Churches:
• Catania Cathedral (Catania, Siciliy, Italy)- 1078-1093- Her hometown and site of her martyrdom that houses her tomb and relics

St. Maurice and the Theban Legion

• 
  Years: 250-287 AD (37 years)
  
• Nationality: Thebes, Egypt
• Life: St. Maurice was a Roman military commander of the Theban Legion from Egypt which included 6000 soldiers. He was ordered into Gaul (Switzerland) to persecute many Christians for not worshipping the pagan Gods. However Maurice himself was a devout Christian along with his legion and calmly refused the emperor's order to kill these Christians. The Roman authorities then proceeded to kill the soldiers of the Theban Legions in groups of ten, so that the rest would recant their Christian vows. Yet none of the soldiers renounced their faith, and responded with peaceful prayer instead of reactionary violence. Eventually all were killed by the sword to become martyrs.
• Cause of Death: Sword
• Patronage: Alpine troops, armies, armorers, clothmakers, cramps, dyers, gout, infantry, soldiers, swordsmiths
• Symbols: Banner, soldiers, knights, Africans in armor,
• Feast Day: Sept 22
• Famous Churches:
• Abbey of Saint-Maurice d'Agaunce (St. Maurice, Switzerland)- 515- The site of Maurice and his legion's martyrdom. One of the oldest monasteries in the world.
• Magdeburg Cathedral (Madgeburg, Germany)- 1209-1520- Contains several major relics of St. Maurice.

St. Alban

• Years: 250-300
• 
  Nationality: Roman Britain
  
• Life: He was a citizen in Roman Britain who sheltered a priest who was fleeing from persecution. While the priest was hiding, Alban became curious with his devotion to prayer, the gospels, and the Christian faith. Eventually Alban was inspired his faith, and asked the priest to baptize him as a Christian. When the Roman soldiers finally located the priest's whereabouts, Alban took the priests' cloak to pretend he was the priest. This allowed the actual priest to escape while Alban was arrested instead as a new Christian convert. During his trial he was ordered to worship the pagan gods, which he refused and was prepared to face martyrdom. During his execution, according to legend, there were multiple miracles that happened on this account. First on route to his execution, they could not cross the bridge due to pedestrian traffic and Alban was able to part the river with the hands raised to the sky (Moses style). The execution was so moved by this act that he later refused to do his task and was replaced by another. The 2 nd executioner succeeded in beheading Alban, however his eyes fell out shortly after and he went blind. This is a great tale (mixed with some legend) about a heroic act of sacrificing oneself for another.
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Converts, refugees, torture victims
• Symbols: Soldier with a large cross, decapitation, head in a holly bush, eyes of executioner falling
• Feast Day: June 22
• Famous Churches:
• Cathedral and Abbey Church of Saint Alban (St. Albans, England)- Very impressive Gothic Cathedral with a Benedictine monastery that was built on the site of his execution and burial. It is the centerpiece of the town of St. Albans

Saint Sebastian

• Years: 255-288 (32 years)
• Nationality: Narbonne, France (Roman Empire)
• 
  Life: He decided to enlist in the Roman army so as to defend Christians that were being persecuted at the time. He converted fellow soldiers while saving multiple Christians that were condemned to death. He eventually made enemies with the Roman authorities and was sentenced to death by emperor Diocletian. His body was covered with arrows from a firing squad, like a porcupine, and somehow he survived. He later revisited Diocletian to ridicule him so as to see the true power of God. Diocletian immediately had him executed again, this time he was killed by clubs. His dead corpse was thrown into the sewers but was later recovered by a woman named Lucina who received a holy vision from St. Sebastian with the exact location of her body.
• Cause of Death: Beat to death by clubs
  
• Patronage: Soldiers, plague, archers, arrows, disabled people, athletes, cyclists,
• Symbols: Tied to a post, Pillar, Tree
• Feast Day: January 20
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica of San Sebastiano (Rome, Italy) 300-350 (The burial site of St. Sebastian. One of the Seven Pilgrim churches of Rome)
• San Sebastiano al Palatino (Rome, Italy) Built in the 900s as a pagan temple but later re-consecrated as the holy site of San Sebastian's martyrdom.

Saint Lucy

• Years: 283-304 (21 years)
• 
  Nationality: Syracuse (Roman Empire)
  
• Life: She was another of the famous early virgin martyrs, who swore a life of purity to Christ. She was able to save her sick mother by praying to the tomb of St. Agatha. She was eventually wedded to a pagan man, who discovered her Christian faith and quickly had her arrested. During her trial she stated she could only sacrifice to the one living God and not to the Roman pagan gods. The authorities sent her to a brothel as punishment, to violate her purity. However by some divine intervention her body remained locked in place and they were unable to move her. At this point they stabbed her in the throat (or the eye) with a dagger to send her to her martyrdom.
• Cause of Death: Dagger
• Patronage: The blind, martyrs, salesman, throat, infections, writers
• Symbols: Cord, eyes, eyes on a dish, blindfold, palm branch, lamp, swords, woman hitched to an oxen, woman with St. Agatha
• Feast Day: Dec 13
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica of Santa Lucia al Sepolcro (Syracuse, Sicily)- 4th-6th century (Rebuilt 1693)- Site of her martyrdom and burial. There are catacombs associated with this basilica.
• Cathedral of Syracuse (Syracuse, Italy)- 5th century- very ancient cathedral that has many relics dedicated to Saint Lucia.

St. Vincent of Saragossa

• 
  Years: 270- 304 AD
  
• Nationality: Huesca, Spain
• Life: He was a deacon from Spain and is celebrated for his resilience in the face of great torture and martyrdom. It's very plausabile that he suffered the worse torture of all the saints, however endured it with great spiritual strength. He was persecuted by the Roman Emperor Diocletian after Vincent refused to worship their pagan Gods. His torture was a brutal one that consisted of being stretched on the rack, beaten severely, torn with iron hooks, burned over the fire, and salt rubbed in his wounds. Despite all this pain he refused to worship their gods and turn away from Christ. The emperor then wanted to have his dead body devoured by wild animals, however his body was protected by a divine force field from the angels.
• Cause of Death: Torture
• Patronage: Spain, Lisbon, wine, vinegar, deacons
• Symbols: deacon robes, ships, ravens
• Feast Day: January 22
• Famous Churches:\Valencia Cathedral (Valencia, Spain)- 1262- Although it is dedicated to Saint Mary of the Assumption, it also has significant chapels and relics of St. Vincent. This church also claims to have the Holy Grail
• Lisbon Cathedral (Lisbon, Portugal)- 1147; 1582-1629- Contains relics of St. Vincent and is considered his burial site

Saint Agnes

• Years: 291-304 (12 years)
  
• Nationality: Rome, Roman Empire
• 
  Life: She chose to follow Jesus at a very young age and refused to renounce him despite pressure all around. Eventually she was forced into an early marriage, however she fought against it declaring that she was married to Christ. Her young suitor then turned her over to the authorities who had her put on trial. She was sent to a brothel, where she was protected by divine intervention (her customers went blind and her hair grew long to r covered her nakedness). She was then sentenced to death by burning at the stake however the flames would not touch her. She was then put to death by the sword. This is one of many examples of the early virgin martyr. Her story is especially striking since she was only 12 years old and she is one of the more popular early martyr saints.
• Cause of Death: Beheading
• Patronage: Young girls, chastity, purity, girl scouts
• Symbols: Lamb, palm branch, white garment, sword
• Feast Day:
• Famous Churches:
• Basilica of Sant'Agnes (Rome, Italy)- 4th century; rebuilt in 7th century- Built over the site of her martydom. Holds her relics including her skull.
• Sant'Agnese in Agone (Rome, Italy)- 17th century; Baroque church built on the site of her trial

Historical Study: The Hundred Years War

For a long time now have I wanted to make a deep historical dive into the Hundred Years War. It was one of the most significant events of the middle ages that helped define the nations of England and France. It went on for 116 years and resulted in nearly 2 to 3 millions death. Yet I know very little about it's details. That is until I finished playing Kingdom Come Deliverance a couple months ago. I decided to stay with the Medieval phase and pivot from Central Europe to Western Europe. This period spanning from mid-1300s to mid-1400s was so eventful. There were three events in particular that defined this era; the Hundred Years War, the Black Death, and the Western Schism. It was no doubt the climax of the medieval age, that resulted in a new era of Renaissance.

I actually was not aware until recently that it was France who won the Hundred Years War. It was broken up into three major phases; England won the first phase, but France won the next two phases. This was ultimately a succession and a territorial dispute. England felt that had the rightful claim to the French monarchy and began to occupy much of French territory. However over time France resisted and kicked the English out to establish their borderlines. Of course for me the most famous hero from this war was Joan of Arc. Long have I heard of her heroic martyrdom, but little was I aware of the historical context. She is arguably one of the most fascinating figures in human history (like something out of fantasy novel that is all actually true).  

My source material in this study the past couple months has been the following. First I have read Bernard Cornwell's 4-part Grail Quest series. I was hoping the books would span the complete Hundred Years War however they only focus on the first phase known as the Edwardian Phase (1337-1360). Despite being mostly an English perspective, the books offer great historical insight to the setting of the time. I have also watched some great medieval movies pertaining to this period such as The King (2019), Messenger: Joan of Arc (1999), The Outlaw King (2019), and The Last Duel (2021). I've also watched some great Television series and documentaries and such to really submerge into the era.

Also during this medieval phase I have branched out into studies on the Black Death. the Inquisition, and a study of the saints (they were key factors in this age). The Black Death was the most deadly plague in human history costing over 50 million lives. I read Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron, to get a better feel for the setting. I also played the two video games Plague's Tale set in France during the epidemic. As I read my books and watched my movies I gathered how fanatical Christianity was in those days. Where everything was done in the name of God or the Saints. I've always intended to do a full study on the saints, and have begun reading the Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine to help understand their incredible stories.

So in this post want to capture the main details and highlights of the full war (all three phases). I want to understand the course of war, the key battles, the key leaders, the territorial maps, the tactics, the weapons, the turning points, and the treaties. However I also want to set the stage and get some background details prior to 1337. I already dove into the Viking Age a few years ago (see Great Heathen Army), so will try to pick up right after that. Many historians will make the case that England became a political sovereignty first in 927 AD under King Athelstan. As for France they broke away from Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire to establish Western Francia in 843. In 987 Hugh Capet united the lords and became monarch of the Kingdom of France. From this point on things got a bit complicated between England and France with marriage alliances and territorial disputes. 

Background- English/French Disputes (1066-1337)

Of course in England the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom was somewhat short-lived, and after hundred years it was conquered by the Normans in 1066. The Normans were surprisingly from France, however William the Conqueror was his own lord, and declared himself King of England (free from French allegiance). William ushered in a new system in England while still holding his territory in Normandy (northern France). The Normandy dynasty strengthened England for nearly 100 years until King Henry I did not have an heir. England fell into a period of civil war over the succession crisis known as The Anarchy. Eventually the House Plantagenet won the dispute and Henry II became king of England in 1154. 

Meanwhile King Philip of France (1060-1108) controlled the north-central region around Paris, however the lands around him such as Normandy, Aquitaine, and Toulouse were controlled by independent noble lords. The region of Normandy became the central power of France now that it was connected to the Kingdom of England. His son however, Louis VI the fat, strengthened the House of Capet and expanded the royal authority from Paris. He arranged a political marriage between his son Louis VII and the duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine to expand French power. Eleanor however is far too ambitious for Louis VII and seeks her own political ambition. The relationship eventually grows apart and is annulled in 1152. 

Eleanor of Aquitaine is such an important factor of English-French history and it's mind boggling there hasn't been a major film about her life. She was ambitious from the get-go, and after divorcing from Louis VII she continued her game of thrones with a new bold strategy. She married the young King of England, Henry II to secure her power. This created a powerful new alliance that would become known as the Angevin Empire in 1154 (which included England and most of western France). France has received a major gut punch from this land grab, until King Philip II reclaims some honor in 1180. He achieves an essential victory in 1204 by conquering Normandy from King John of England (The villain of the Robin hood tales). King Philip also strengthens his power in the south, by launching the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars. This ultimately brought an end to the Angevin Empire by 1214. 

This period often known as the First Hundred Years War marks a sudden turn where France is on the upswing while England is struggling under King John. He completely weakens the English monarchy by losing much of his land to France and limiting his royal power by signing the Magna Carta. His son King Henry III (1216-1272)  is able to stabilize the chaos, but still has limited power. Meanwhile King Louis IX of France (1226-1270) strengthens French power and infrastructure with complete devotion to Christianity. However in 1272 King Edward the Longshanks restrengthens England thru military might by conquering Wales and nearly dominating Scotland. Despite eventually losing to William Wallace and Robert the Bruce, England is once again a force to be reckoned with.       

By the early 1300s we finally arrive to the dispute that would lead to the Hundred Years War. The territorial region of Aquitaine (in southern-France) was still officially English territory after the marriage of Eleanor. Naturally France did not like this as it was their territory to begin with. This brewing tension finally hit it's spark thanks to a succession crisis in 1328. The Capetian line finally came to end when Charles IV was unable to produce a male heir. At this point King Edward III felt he had a claim to the French monarchy however France rejected this due to the obvious enemy ramifications. The tension between both monarchies went on for another ten years until in 1337 when King Philip VI from the house of Vaois decided to take back Gascony. Edward III responded by formally declaring war on France, which was the beginning of the Hundred Years War.

Edwardian Phase (1337-1360)

King Edward III was likely preparing his military for this moment since his claim was rejected in 1328. His initial strategy was to hold the southern French region of Gascony, while sending the bulk of his army across the English Channel. They landed primarily in the neutral territory of Flanders (modern day Belgium)who disliked the French. From here King Edward III established a beachhead and began to launch his campaign into France. The first main objective was to achieve naval supremacy which led to the Battle of Sluys in 1340. This was the first large battle of the war, in which the English defeated the French navy and captured thousands of soldiers and hundreds of ships. This allowed England to stretch it's landings across northern France, while disallowing a French counterattack invasion (although the French did still achieve smaller raids on the English coast).

Meanwhile as France prepares their defense another succession issue emerges in Brittany (the northwestern coast of France). Once again King Edward III pressed his claim and began to send separate raids into the region of Brittany. This theater of the war is considered the War of the Breton Succession and went on for 20 years within the larger Hundred Years War conflict. Meanwhile there is still ongoing raid/siege warfare in Flanders and in Gascony. In 1345 King Edward decided to press his advantage and launch a full scale invasion from Normandy. His son Prince Edward (aka the Black Prince) is given command of this assault referred to as the Crecy Campaign. 

In 1346 the English began devastating scorched-earth tactics (known as Chevauchees) across Normandy. The purpose was to destroy supply lines, local resources, but also get a reaction out of the French army. Their goal was achieved when King Philip assembled a massive army to confront this English invasion. The English then began a string of victories first the Battle of Caen in July 1346 then the Battle of Blanchetaque (crossing the River Somme) in August 1346. At this point the French strategy was to pursuit the smaller English army and pin them at the northern seacoast. King Edward III boldly chose to make a defensive stance despite being vastly outnumbered. 

It was here at the Battle of Crecy in August 1346 that the famous English longbowmen earned their legendary reputation. They coordinated together and delivered a rainstorm of arrows that completely obliterated the French army. It was also here where the Black Prince made his glorious debut at the age of 16. He fights thick in the action and at one point is able to completely turn the tide of battle. It was also hear where the blind king John of Bohemia, made a glorious last stand. Fighting alongside the French, he had his soldiers tie his horses together, and thus made a final charge into the enemy where he met his death (see History of Bohemia). 

Despite being routed, the French army is still not completely defeated and has a few tricks up their sleeves. They decide to press their alliance with Scotland who is also at war with England during the Second War of Scottish Independence. The French convince David the Bruce to strike in the north, while Edward's army is focused on France. This leads to the Battle of Neville's Cross (Oct 1346) in Durham, England which turns to be a total disaster for the Scottish army resulting in the capture of David the Bruce. Meanwhile King Edward decides to not march on Paris to deliver a knockout blow, but to continue with the long-game. So he turns his army to the northern port city of Calais to establish a stronger beachhead. 

The city of Calais is a heavy fortified French port city, and King Edward III decides to starve them out. King Philip once again attempts a relief effort, but it is to no avail. After nearly a yearlong siege, the city of Calais surrenders. England now has a major port hub to continue their campaign. In 1348 the war came to a stalemate as the Black Death swept across western Europe for the next few years. By 1355 King Edward resumed his offensive once again led by his brave son, Edward the Black Prince. The Black Prince marched to Gascony in southwestern France, to solidify their control there with continuous chevauchee tactics along the way. He then lead a second much larger chevauchee force in 1356 this time heading northward. This would lead to the decisive engagement at Poitiers.

Once again the English army was vastly outnumbered however the Black Prince felt they had a tactical advantage with their longbowmen. The French army under King John II strategically maneuver to trap the English army and force them to establish a defensive position. The Black Prince attempts to negotiate, however King John II demands outright surrender, which the Black Prince refuses. Once the Battle of Poitiers begins, the French army anticipates the effect of the longbowmen and march on foot instead of by horse. Nonetheless the terrain becomes narrow, and the English use their infantry more than there archers. The Black Prince then launches a well-timed calvary charge that hits the French at their flank and breaks them. They capture King John II and his son Philip the Bold and achieve a massive victory. 

Despite capturing the French king, King Edward still desires to capture Paris and thus launches another offensive in 1359. He marches his army from Calais and leads a major assault on the city of Reims. However after five weeks of siege he is unable to penetrate the city and decides to abandon the effort. Edward then marches his army towards Paris in 1360 seeking to deliver the penultimate knock-out blow. However once again the French people were able to resist the assault on their capital city. This time Edward marched further west to capture the city of Chartres. It was here that a freak occurrence happened on Easter Sunday (known as Black Monday) where a hailstorm killed 1000 English soldiers. Seeing this a warning from God, King Edward decides to finally come to terms with France and signs the Treaty of Bretigny. This brings an end to the Edwardian campaign where England gains major territory in France however still not the throne. They also agree to release King John II for a large ransom payment.      

Carolinian Phase (1369-1389)

Following the Treaty of Bretigny, France was in shambles with a weak economy and civil unrest. In 1364 however King Charles V took to the throne and began a new recovery campaign. He works closely with his military commander Bertrand du Guesclin to begin guerilla campaigns throughout the occupied region. Guesclin achieves a key victory over the Kingdom of Navarre at the Battle of Cocherel, reclaiming territory in Normandy. France then turns it's attention to an ongoing civil war in Castile (Spain), and decides to use it as a proxy war against England. France supports the house of Trastamara while England supports Pedro the Cruel. Charles V even sends his best commander, Bertrand to fight against Pedro the Cruel and Edward the Black Prince at the Battle of Najera (1367). However the Black Prince pours all his resources into this one battle to help Pedro reclaim power of Castile.

This English victory in Castile would completely backfire on them. Due to the heavy cost of this battle, Edward is forced to raise taxes on their French territory of Aquitaine, which results in civil unrest. Charles V quickly hears the cries of the French nobles in Aquitaine and declares Edward lift the heavy taxation. When Edward refuses, Charles V declares war on England to resume the 2nd phase of the Hundred Years War known as the Carolinian Phase in 1369. Meanwhile in Castile, Pedro the Cruel loses English backing for not paying his dues, and is killed by Henry Trastamara to end the Castilian Civil War. This is especially a bad fallout for Edward the Black Prince who has made enemies now in Aquitaine and with the new king of Castile.

Bertrand du Guesclin takes command of the French military with new guerilla tactics (basically to avoid open field battle where the longbowmen will annihilate them). His first campaign is to take back the region of Aquitaine, taking advantage of the civil unrest but also the Black Prince's ill condition. While fighting resumes in the southwestern region, Charles V coordinates multiple campaigns across France to split the English forces. Simultaneous campaigns are fought along the western coast in Aquitaine (southwest), Poitou (central-west), and Normandy (northwest). The French are quickly able to recapture ports, cut off English supplies, and take back their fortresses. Their first major victory comes thru a surprise assault at the Battle of Pontvallain in 1370.        

Despite their land victories, England still controls most of the western and northern French coastline. That is until King Charles V allies with the new Castilian king Henry Trastamara and attacks the key port of La Rochelle in 1372. The Spanish navy proves to be superior then the English in this instance, as they capture La Rochelle (basically for the French). After this crucial defeat England loses it's superiority on the western Bay of Biscay, significantly cutting off their supply routes. The French continue to systemically take out English garrisons and fortresses throughout occupied territory. The Black Prince is unable to deliver a proper response due to his sickness and eventually dies in 1376 at the age of 45. By 1380 both King Charles V and Bertrand die, however they have reclaimed most of France at this point. Charles VI resumes the French advantage until 1389 where he is able to force a treaty with the new English king Richard II. The Truce of Leulinghem brings an end to the Carolinian phase, with France recapturing most of it's land except for Calais. 

Lancastrian War (1415-1453)

Throughout the truce of the 1390s both England and France underwent periods of instability due their  weak leaders of Charles VI and Henry II. Eventually in 1398 Richard II is overthrown by Henry IV which brings an end to the 331 year old Plantagenet dynasty and the beginning of the Lancaster dynasty. Despite claiming the throne however Henry IV still has many enemies throughout England, who seem him as the illegitimate ruler. Meanwhile a great Welsh uprising occurs lead by Owain Glyndwr (that is heavily supported by France). France however is also undergoing internal disputes due to Charles VI mental illness and civil factions begin to break off. A civil war break outs in France between the Armagnac royal supporters and Burgundians led by John the Fearless (1407-1435). 

After the death of King Henry IV, the English crown passes on his to fierce son Henry V in 1413. Henry V has already established a reputation as a warrior king and wins the respect of all rival factions throughout England. Henry V ultimately decides to relaunch the war against France to strengthen his legitimacy as king and take advantage of France's weakening state due to the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War. He begins with some diplomatic negotiations seeking new marriage alliances and to reclaim the territory of Normandy and Aquitaine. When this was refused Henry V sailed his army to Normandy to began the third phase of the Hundreds Years War in 1415 known as the Lancastrian War.

The first major battle of this phase occurred at the Siege of Harfluer (Aug 1415). It was by no means an easy victory for the English and lasted a month until they were able to establish a beachhead on the northern French coast. The eager young king then decided to quickly move out of Normandy territory and march along the northern coast to their occupied territory in Calais. I can't help but see this as an early tactical mistake by Henry V, who should have just sailed straight to Calais first. Since they already controlled the region, and it was a much shorter trip across the sea. Nonetheless despite capturing Harfluer, his army was weakened and basically trapped by the French. This led to the Battle of Agincourt, which should have been the knock-out punch by the French. However this is where Henry V established his legendary reputation that would later inspire a great William Shakespeare play. 

The French army basically intercepted Henry V's march to Calais, and this is what began the famous Battle of Agincourt. It took place on a narrow battlefield between the woods, that became extremely muddy due to heavy rain. This condition favored the outnumbered English army, who were able to move their infantry quickly thru the muddy conditions, while the French calvary was stalled. King Henry V himself was fighting in the midst of the action and helped turn the battle in his favor. Eventually they were able to break the French lines and force them to surrender. At this point King Henry decided to kill all the French prisoners so as to send a harsh message to the French king.

After achieving victory at Agincourt, Henry V decides to return to Normandy to press his advantage. He eventually captures the capital of Normandy at the Siege of Rouen in 1419. Henry V signs the Treaty of Troyes in 1420 which marries him with the French princess and basically makes him heir to the throne. France is still in shambles at this point due to the ongoing Burgundian civil war and the weak leadership of Charles VI. The Burgundians are sided with the English and control Paris. It appears at this stage all is lost for France, but then begins one of the most miraculous turn of events in history. With France basically in his hands, King Henry V suddenly grows sick and dies at the young age of 35. This left a major power gap in England, as the crown went to his young child Henry VI who was unfit to lead. Furthermore Charles VI died the same year, and the crown passed to his son Charles VII. But it wasn't actually Charles VII that lead the comeback. It was a young country girl from Domremy.    

This ties great into my study on the saints, and really demonstrates the Christian fanaticism of the age. The young Joan of Arc was experiencing visions from God at the young age of 13 telling her that she must save France. Despite being a young woman without any nobility, many found her passion to be convincing, and eventually she was able to get an audience with Charles VII. Facing collapse Charles VII decides to trust this mysterious young woman, and gives her armor, a banner, and even a military command. Joan of Arc becomes an incredible morale boost for the French army who are able to win back the Siege of Orleans (May 1429), the Loire Valley (June 1429), and the city of Reims (July 1429). With this string of victories Charles VII is once again crowned king in defiance to the Treaty of Troyes that recognized the English Lancaster claim. 

The next primary goal for the newly crowned Charles XII was to reclaim the French capital of Paris from the Burgundians/English. The popular Joan of Arc once again leads the Siege on Paris in Sept 1429, but is unable to break thru. She then redirects her assault on Compiegne (1430), but is wounded and captured by the Burgundian forces. Their leader Philip the Good then sells Joan of Arc as a political prisoner to the English stationed in Rouen. Knowing that she is a great threat, the English put her on trial for witchcraft with the support of the church. Charles XII does not come to her rescue, and she is burned at the stake in 1431 at the young age of 19. She becomes a Christian martyr and a rally symbol for the French people.

By 1435 Charles VII is able to make peace with Burgundy thru diplomatic negotiations. This turns out to be a major strain for England who has been capitalizing on Burgundy resources and positions. In turn the city of Paris is restored to the French monarchy where Charles VII regains his capital. Another brief truce was established with the English in 1444 known as the Treaty of Tours. Eventually the truce was unpopular by both sides, and Charles VII continued his counterattack against occupied territory in Normandy. He achieves victories at the Battle of Formigny (1450) and the decisive Battle of Castillon (1453). By this point France had recaptured all it's territory from England except for Calais (which was finally captured in 1558). This essentially brought an end to England's claim on the French throne which lasted for 116 years and resulted in nearly half a million deaths (not counting the Black Death of course).