Historical Study: The Hundred Years War

For a long time now have I wanted to make a deep historical dive into the Hundred Years War. It was one of the most significant events of the middle ages that helped define the nations of England and France. It went on for 116 years and resulted in nearly 2 to 3 millions death. Yet I know very little about it's details. That is until I finished playing Kingdom Come Deliverance a couple months ago. I decided to stay with the Medieval phase and pivot from Central Europe to Western Europe. This period spanning from mid-1300s to mid-1400s was so eventful. There were three events in particular that defined this era; the Hundred Years War, the Black Death, and the Western Schism. It was no doubt the climax of the medieval age, that resulted in a new era of Renaissance.

I actually was not aware until recently that it was France who won the Hundred Years War. It was broken up into three major phases; England won the first phase, but France won the next two phases. This was ultimately a succession and a territorial dispute. England felt that had the rightful claim to the French monarchy and began to occupy much of French territory. However over time France resisted and kicked the English out to establish their borderlines. Of course for me the most famous hero from this war was Joan of Arc. Long have I heard of her heroic martyrdom, but little was I aware of the historical context. She is arguably one of the most fascinating figures in human history (like something out of fantasy novel that is all actually true).  

My source material in this study the past couple months has been the following. First I have read Bernard Cornwell's 4-part Grail Quest series. I was hoping the books would span the complete Hundred Years War however they only focus on the first phase known as the Edwardian Phase (1337-1360). Despite being mostly an English perspective, the books offer great historical insight to the setting of the time. I have also watched some great medieval movies pertaining to this period such as The King (2019), Messenger: Joan of Arc (1999), The Outlaw King (2019), and The Last Duel (2021). I've also watched some great Television series and documentaries and such to really submerge into the era.

Also during this medieval phase I have branched out into studies on the Black Death. the Inquisition, and a study of the saints (they were key factors in this age). The Black Death was the most deadly plague in human history costing over 50 million lives. I read Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron, to get a better feel for the setting. I also played the two video games Plague's Tale set in France during the epidemic. As I read my books and watched my movies I gathered how fanatical Christianity was in those days. Where everything was done in the name of God or the Saints. I've always intended to do a full study on the saints, and have begun reading the Golden Legend by Jacobus de Voragine to help understand their incredible stories.

So in this post want to capture the main details and highlights of the full war (all three phases). I want to understand the course of war, the key battles, the key leaders, the territorial maps, the tactics, the weapons, the turning points, and the treaties. However I also want to set the stage and get some background details prior to 1337. I already dove into the Viking Age a few years ago (see Great Heathen Army), so will try to pick up right after that. Many historians will make the case that England became a political sovereignty first in 927 AD under King Athelstan. As for France they broke away from Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire to establish Western Francia in 843. In 987 Hugh Capet united the lords and became monarch of the Kingdom of France. From this point on things got a bit complicated between England and France with marriage alliances and territorial disputes. 

Background- English/French Disputes (1066-1337)

Of course in England the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom was somewhat short-lived, and after hundred years it was conquered by the Normans in 1066. The Normans were surprisingly from France, however William the Conqueror was his own lord, and declared himself King of England (free from French allegiance). William ushered in a new system in England while still holding his territory in Normandy (northern France). The Normandy dynasty strengthened England for nearly 100 years until King Henry I did not have an heir. England fell into a period of civil war over the succession crisis known as The Anarchy. Eventually the House Plantagenet won the dispute and Henry II became king of England in 1154. 

Meanwhile King Philip of France (1060-1108) controlled the north-central region around Paris, however the lands around him such as Normandy, Aquitaine, and Toulouse were controlled by independent noble lords. The region of Normandy became the central power of France now that it was connected to the Kingdom of England. His son however, Louis VI the fat, strengthened the House of Capet and expanded the royal authority from Paris. He arranged a political marriage between his son Louis VII and the duchess Eleanor of Aquitaine to expand French power. Eleanor however is far too ambitious for Louis VII and seeks her own political ambition. The relationship eventually grows apart and is annulled in 1152. 

Eleanor of Aquitaine is such an important factor of English-French history and it's mind boggling there hasn't been a major film about her life. She was ambitious from the get-go, and after divorcing from Louis VII she continued her game of thrones with a new bold strategy. She married the young King of England, Henry II to secure her power. This created a powerful new alliance that would become known as the Angevin Empire in 1154 (which included England and most of western France). France has received a major gut punch from this land grab, until King Philip II reclaims some honor in 1180. He achieves an essential victory in 1204 by conquering Normandy from King John of England (The villain of the Robin hood tales). King Philip also strengthens his power in the south, by launching the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars. This ultimately brought an end to the Angevin Empire by 1214. 

This period often known as the First Hundred Years War marks a sudden turn where France is on the upswing while England is struggling under King John. He completely weakens the English monarchy by losing much of his land to France and limiting his royal power by signing the Magna Carta. His son King Henry III (1216-1272)  is able to stabilize the chaos, but still has limited power. Meanwhile King Louis IX of France (1226-1270) strengthens French power and infrastructure with complete devotion to Christianity. However in 1272 King Edward the Longshanks restrengthens England thru military might by conquering Wales and nearly dominating Scotland. Despite eventually losing to William Wallace and Robert the Bruce, England is once again a force to be reckoned with.       

By the early 1300s we finally arrive to the dispute that would lead to the Hundred Years War. The territorial region of Aquitaine (in southern-France) was still officially English territory after the marriage of Eleanor. Naturally France did not like this as it was their territory to begin with. This brewing tension finally hit it's spark thanks to a succession crisis in 1328. The Capetian line finally came to end when Charles IV was unable to produce a male heir. At this point King Edward III felt he had a claim to the French monarchy however France rejected this due to the obvious enemy ramifications. The tension between both monarchies went on for another ten years until in 1337 when King Philip VI from the house of Vaois decided to take back Gascony. Edward III responded by formally declaring war on France, which was the beginning of the Hundred Years War.

Edwardian Phase (1337-1360)

King Edward III was likely preparing his military for this moment since his claim was rejected in 1328. His initial strategy was to hold the southern French region of Gascony, while sending the bulk of his army across the English Channel. They landed primarily in the neutral territory of Flanders (modern day Belgium)who disliked the French. From here King Edward III established a beachhead and began to launch his campaign into France. The first main objective was to achieve naval supremacy which led to the Battle of Sluys in 1340. This was the first large battle of the war, in which the English defeated the French navy and captured thousands of soldiers and hundreds of ships. This allowed England to stretch it's landings across northern France, while disallowing a French counterattack invasion (although the French did still achieve smaller raids on the English coast).

Meanwhile as France prepares their defense another succession issue emerges in Brittany (the northwestern coast of France). Once again King Edward III pressed his claim and began to send separate raids into the region of Brittany. This theater of the war is considered the War of the Breton Succession and went on for 20 years within the larger Hundred Years War conflict. Meanwhile there is still ongoing raid/siege warfare in Flanders and in Gascony. In 1345 King Edward decided to press his advantage and launch a full scale invasion from Normandy. His son Prince Edward (aka the Black Prince) is given command of this assault referred to as the Crecy Campaign. 

In 1346 the English began devastating scorched-earth tactics (known as Chevauchees) across Normandy. The purpose was to destroy supply lines, local resources, but also get a reaction out of the French army. Their goal was achieved when King Philip assembled a massive army to confront this English invasion. The English then began a string of victories first the Battle of Caen in July 1346 then the Battle of Blanchetaque (crossing the River Somme) in August 1346. At this point the French strategy was to pursuit the smaller English army and pin them at the northern seacoast. King Edward III boldly chose to make a defensive stance despite being vastly outnumbered. 

It was here at the Battle of Crecy in August 1346 that the famous English longbowmen earned their legendary reputation. They coordinated together and delivered a rainstorm of arrows that completely obliterated the French army. It was also here where the Black Prince made his glorious debut at the age of 16. He fights thick in the action and at one point is able to completely turn the tide of battle. It was also hear where the blind king John of Bohemia, made a glorious last stand. Fighting alongside the French, he had his soldiers tie his horses together, and thus made a final charge into the enemy where he met his death (see History of Bohemia). 

Despite being routed, the French army is still not completely defeated and has a few tricks up their sleeves. They decide to press their alliance with Scotland who is also at war with England during the Second War of Scottish Independence. The French convince David the Bruce to strike in the north, while Edward's army is focused on France. This leads to the Battle of Neville's Cross (Oct 1346) in Durham, England which turns to be a total disaster for the Scottish army resulting in the capture of David the Bruce. Meanwhile King Edward decides to not march on Paris to deliver a knockout blow, but to continue with the long-game. So he turns his army to the northern port city of Calais to establish a stronger beachhead. 

The city of Calais is a heavy fortified French port city, and King Edward III decides to starve them out. King Philip once again attempts a relief effort, but it is to no avail. After nearly a yearlong siege, the city of Calais surrenders. England now has a major port hub to continue their campaign. In 1348 the war came to a stalemate as the Black Death swept across western Europe for the next few years. By 1355 King Edward resumed his offensive once again led by his brave son, Edward the Black Prince. The Black Prince marched to Gascony in southwestern France, to solidify their control there with continuous chevauchee tactics along the way. He then lead a second much larger chevauchee force in 1356 this time heading northward. This would lead to the decisive engagement at Poitiers.

Once again the English army was vastly outnumbered however the Black Prince felt they had a tactical advantage with their longbowmen. The French army under King John II strategically maneuver to trap the English army and force them to establish a defensive position. The Black Prince attempts to negotiate, however King John II demands outright surrender, which the Black Prince refuses. Once the Battle of Poitiers begins, the French army anticipates the effect of the longbowmen and march on foot instead of by horse. Nonetheless the terrain becomes narrow, and the English use their infantry more than there archers. The Black Prince then launches a well-timed calvary charge that hits the French at their flank and breaks them. They capture King John II and his son Philip the Bold and achieve a massive victory. 

Despite capturing the French king, King Edward still desires to capture Paris and thus launches another offensive in 1359. He marches his army from Calais and leads a major assault on the city of Reims. However after five weeks of siege he is unable to penetrate the city and decides to abandon the effort. Edward then marches his army towards Paris in 1360 seeking to deliver the penultimate knock-out blow. However once again the French people were able to resist the assault on their capital city. This time Edward marched further west to capture the city of Chartres. It was here that a freak occurrence happened on Easter Sunday (known as Black Monday) where a hailstorm killed 1000 English soldiers. Seeing this a warning from God, King Edward decides to finally come to terms with France and signs the Treaty of Bretigny. This brings an end to the Edwardian campaign where England gains major territory in France however still not the throne. They also agree to release King John II for a large ransom payment.      

Carolinian Phase (1369-1389)

Following the Treaty of Bretigny, France was in shambles with a weak economy and civil unrest. In 1364 however King Charles V took to the throne and began a new recovery campaign. He works closely with his military commander Bertrand du Guesclin to begin guerilla campaigns throughout the occupied region. Guesclin achieves a key victory over the Kingdom of Navarre at the Battle of Cocherel, reclaiming territory in Normandy. France then turns it's attention to an ongoing civil war in Castile (Spain), and decides to use it as a proxy war against England. France supports the house of Trastamara while England supports Pedro the Cruel. Charles V even sends his best commander, Bertrand to fight against Pedro the Cruel and Edward the Black Prince at the Battle of Najera (1367). However the Black Prince pours all his resources into this one battle to help Pedro reclaim power of Castile.

This English victory in Castile would completely backfire on them. Due to the heavy cost of this battle, Edward is forced to raise taxes on their French territory of Aquitaine, which results in civil unrest. Charles V quickly hears the cries of the French nobles in Aquitaine and declares Edward lift the heavy taxation. When Edward refuses, Charles V declares war on England to resume the 2nd phase of the Hundred Years War known as the Carolinian Phase in 1369. Meanwhile in Castile, Pedro the Cruel loses English backing for not paying his dues, and is killed by Henry Trastamara to end the Castilian Civil War. This is especially a bad fallout for Edward the Black Prince who has made enemies now in Aquitaine and with the new king of Castile.

Bertrand du Guesclin takes command of the French military with new guerilla tactics (basically to avoid open field battle where the longbowmen will annihilate them). His first campaign is to take back the region of Aquitaine, taking advantage of the civil unrest but also the Black Prince's ill condition. While fighting resumes in the southwestern region, Charles V coordinates multiple campaigns across France to split the English forces. Simultaneous campaigns are fought along the western coast in Aquitaine (southwest), Poitou (central-west), and Normandy (northwest). The French are quickly able to recapture ports, cut off English supplies, and take back their fortresses. Their first major victory comes thru a surprise assault at the Battle of Pontvallain in 1370.        

Despite their land victories, England still controls most of the western and northern French coastline. That is until King Charles V allies with the new Castilian king Henry Trastamara and attacks the key port of La Rochelle in 1372. The Spanish navy proves to be superior then the English in this instance, as they capture La Rochelle (basically for the French). After this crucial defeat England loses it's superiority on the western Bay of Biscay, significantly cutting off their supply routes. The French continue to systemically take out English garrisons and fortresses throughout occupied territory. The Black Prince is unable to deliver a proper response due to his sickness and eventually dies in 1376 at the age of 45. By 1380 both King Charles V and Bertrand die, however they have reclaimed most of France at this point. Charles VI resumes the French advantage until 1389 where he is able to force a treaty with the new English king Richard II. The Truce of Leulinghem brings an end to the Carolinian phase, with France recapturing most of it's land except for Calais. 

Lancastrian War (1415-1453)

Throughout the truce of the 1390s both England and France underwent periods of instability due their  weak leaders of Charles VI and Henry II. Eventually in 1398 Richard II is overthrown by Henry IV which brings an end to the 331 year old Plantagenet dynasty and the beginning of the Lancaster dynasty. Despite claiming the throne however Henry IV still has many enemies throughout England, who seem him as the illegitimate ruler. Meanwhile a great Welsh uprising occurs lead by Owain Glyndwr (that is heavily supported by France). France however is also undergoing internal disputes due to Charles VI mental illness and civil factions begin to break off. A civil war break outs in France between the Armagnac royal supporters and Burgundians led by John the Fearless (1407-1435). 

After the death of King Henry IV, the English crown passes on his to fierce son Henry V in 1413. Henry V has already established a reputation as a warrior king and wins the respect of all rival factions throughout England. Henry V ultimately decides to relaunch the war against France to strengthen his legitimacy as king and take advantage of France's weakening state due to the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War. He begins with some diplomatic negotiations seeking new marriage alliances and to reclaim the territory of Normandy and Aquitaine. When this was refused Henry V sailed his army to Normandy to began the third phase of the Hundreds Years War in 1415 known as the Lancastrian War.

The first major battle of this phase occurred at the Siege of Harfluer (Aug 1415). It was by no means an easy victory for the English and lasted a month until they were able to establish a beachhead on the northern French coast. The eager young king then decided to quickly move out of Normandy territory and march along the northern coast to their occupied territory in Calais. I can't help but see this as an early tactical mistake by Henry V, who should have just sailed straight to Calais first. Since they already controlled the region, and it was a much shorter trip across the sea. Nonetheless despite capturing Harfluer, his army was weakened and basically trapped by the French. This led to the Battle of Agincourt, which should have been the knock-out punch by the French. However this is where Henry V established his legendary reputation that would later inspire a great William Shakespeare play. 

The French army basically intercepted Henry V's march to Calais, and this is what began the famous Battle of Agincourt. It took place on a narrow battlefield between the woods, that became extremely muddy due to heavy rain. This condition favored the outnumbered English army, who were able to move their infantry quickly thru the muddy conditions, while the French calvary was stalled. King Henry V himself was fighting in the midst of the action and helped turn the battle in his favor. Eventually they were able to break the French lines and force them to surrender. At this point King Henry decided to kill all the French prisoners so as to send a harsh message to the French king.

After achieving victory at Agincourt, Henry V decides to return to Normandy to press his advantage. He eventually captures the capital of Normandy at the Siege of Rouen in 1419. Henry V signs the Treaty of Troyes in 1420 which marries him with the French princess and basically makes him heir to the throne. France is still in shambles at this point due to the ongoing Burgundian civil war and the weak leadership of Charles VI. The Burgundians are sided with the English and control Paris. It appears at this stage all is lost for France, but then begins one of the most miraculous turn of events in history. With France basically in his hands, King Henry V suddenly grows sick and dies at the young age of 35. This left a major power gap in England, as the crown went to his young child Henry VI who was unfit to lead. Furthermore Charles VI died the same year, and the crown passed to his son Charles VII. But it wasn't actually Charles VII that lead the comeback. It was a young country girl from Domremy.    

This ties great into my study on the saints, and really demonstrates the Christian fanaticism of the age. The young Joan of Arc was experiencing visions from God at the young age of 13 telling her that she must save France. Despite being a young woman without any nobility, many found her passion to be convincing, and eventually she was able to get an audience with Charles VII. Facing collapse Charles VII decides to trust this mysterious young woman, and gives her armor, a banner, and even a military command. Joan of Arc becomes an incredible morale boost for the French army who are able to win back the Siege of Orleans (May 1429), the Loire Valley (June 1429), and the city of Reims (July 1429). With this string of victories Charles VII is once again crowned king in defiance to the Treaty of Troyes that recognized the English Lancaster claim. 

The next primary goal for the newly crowned Charles XII was to reclaim the French capital of Paris from the Burgundians/English. The popular Joan of Arc once again leads the Siege on Paris in Sept 1429, but is unable to break thru. She then redirects her assault on Compiegne (1430), but is wounded and captured by the Burgundian forces. Their leader Philip the Good then sells Joan of Arc as a political prisoner to the English stationed in Rouen. Knowing that she is a great threat, the English put her on trial for witchcraft with the support of the church. Charles XII does not come to her rescue, and she is burned at the stake in 1431 at the young age of 19. She becomes a Christian martyr and a rally symbol for the French people.

By 1435 Charles VII is able to make peace with Burgundy thru diplomatic negotiations. This turns out to be a major strain for England who has been capitalizing on Burgundy resources and positions. In turn the city of Paris is restored to the French monarchy where Charles VII regains his capital. Another brief truce was established with the English in 1444 known as the Treaty of Tours. Eventually the truce was unpopular by both sides, and Charles VII continued his counterattack against occupied territory in Normandy. He achieves victories at the Battle of Formigny (1450) and the decisive Battle of Castillon (1453). By this point France had recaptured all it's territory from England except for Calais (which was finally captured in 1558). This essentially brought an end to England's claim on the French throne which lasted for 116 years and resulted in nearly half a million deaths (not counting the Black Death of course).