So now I'm going to completely turn the page on my Pacific War studies and focus on a new Chinese appreciation phase. This sudden interest was inspired from my studies of the Second Sino-Japanese War. I came to the realization that I know very little about the history and culture of the vast land known as China. I enjoy their food, the music, their art, but know very little about their history and customs. For example, what's the deal with the Chinese New Year and their fascination with dragons? I intend to get all the answers in my next few posts regarding China's history, mythology, and culture.
In this post I want to focus on the ancient history of China. It is one of the oldest civilizations in world history, behind that of Egypt. The first known Chinese dynasty was established in 2070 BC with the Xia Dynasty (Egypt's first dynasty was established 1000 years prior to this, in approx 3100 BC). From this point on China oversaw a long history of dynasties and imperial reigns that lasted until the Xanhai Revolution of 1911 and the establishment of the Republic of China. I will later write about the modern era of Chinese history pertaining to their Xanhai Revolution, the Chinese Civil War, and the establishment of the People's Republic of China.
However it was not until 2070 BC that the first dynasty was established known as the Xia Dynasty. The origins of this dynasty are often mixed with mythological legends pertaining to the Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors. These great heroic leaders are considered the mythological founders of the civilization of China. The legendary Yu the Great is considered the last of these five emperors and the founder of the Xia Dynasty (however his existence in history is disputed). While there is very little known regarding this dynasty, they are most renown for introducing flood control. It is believed the Xia Dynasty reigned in north central China (modern day Henan Province) from 2070-1600 BC.
In 1046 BC the Zhou Dynasty had emerged and taken control of the north central region of China. The Battle of Muye marked the major transition in power along the Yellow River, that brought an abrupt end to the Shang Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty would go on to become the longest reigning dynasty in Chinese history for nearly 800 years. The 1st king of the Zhou Dynasty was King Wu who introduced the Mandate of Heaven to the Chinese region. This concept essentially proclaimed that the king was chosen by the gods to become the divine ruler of mankind.
In the likes of Classical Greece, China underwent a sudden age of philosophical enlightenment by 600 BC. Many great Asian philosophers lived during this age such as Confucius (religious founder of Confucianism), Lao Tzu (religious founder of Taoism), Menicus (philosopher of Confucianism), Mo Ti (philosopher of Mohism), and Sun-Tzu (the military strategist known for his work The Art of War). Some of the most popular religions and cultural identity was formed during this age. This movement is referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought and lasted until 221 BC.
Often referred to as the first emperor, Qin Shi Huang was one of the most sadistic rulers in Chinese history. While he successfully united the states and decentralized a government, he was constantly hungry for power. He's most controversial act was replacing the Confucius state ideology with the system of Legalism (which enacted stricter laws and regulations). In an effort to eliminate his philosophical opponents he had many Confucius texts and scholars burned in 213 BC.
While the Qin Dynasty ultimately laid the groundwork of China's Imperial structure, the reign of Qin Shi was short-lived. At the age of 49, the first emperor died of mercury pills in 210 BC and his dynastic authority was quickly overrun by rebels. The dynasty was followed by a period of instability known as the Chu-Han Contention for control of the imperial throne. This authority eventually went to the rebel statesmen leader, Liu Bang who declared himself emperor of the Han Dynasty in 202 BC.
During it's 400 year reign, the Han Dynasty had many emperors however the most significant was the 7th emperor Wu of Han. He reigned for 54 years from 141-87 BC ushered in the peak of the Han Golden Age. He expanded territory and by promoting Confucius he helped establish the Han ethnicity as the core of China. He was also key in the western exploration and expansion brought forth by the Silk Road which introduced new foreign trade, cultures, and the religion of Buddhism. Following his death the Han Dynasty went into a slow decline and was faced with various usurpers.
In 618 AD Emperor Gaozu took the reigns of imperial China and established the Tang Dynasty. Picking up where the Sui Dynasty left off, China experienced yet another golden age during this reign. The second emperor of the Tang Dynasty, Taizong is often regarded as the greatest empire in Chinese history. He reigned from 626-649 AD and oversaw many military expansions to the mainland of China. Also during this time the economy of China began to prosper and had became the most populated country in the world.
In 960 AD China was once again reunited by Emperor Taizu who established the Song Dynasty. However while there were significant technological inventions during this time (such as gunpowder, paper, and the compass) it was by no means a golden age. This era was still defined by territorial military engagements. The outer regions of China were now under the control of nomadic tribes, most notably the Mongolians to their north. Throughout it's reign the Song Dynasty continued to lose control of territory and China was eventually divided into other dynasties such as Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties. However by 1204 AD the Mongol Conquest of China had begun led by the famous Genghis Khan. By 1279 the Mongolians had overthrown all major dynasties in the region by which Kublai Khan (grandson of Genghis) established the Yuan Dynasty.
The conquest of China by the Mongolians became the first time in history that China was conquered. Kublai Khan centered his Mongol Empire in the heart of China and eventually established Beijing as the capital of the Yuan Dynasty. However while the Mongols were great fighters they did not govern so well and quickly began to lost grasp of their vast stretching empire. After defeats against the Japanese and the Koreans the Mongols decided to halt their military campaign and build the infrastructure of China. During this time the Silk Road to the west was enhanced and eventually gave way to the famous voyages of Italian explorer Marco Polo. Marco Polo is often considered one of the earliest western explorers into the far east, and his journals helped bridge the relationship between Europe and Asia.
In 1368 the victorious Zhu Yuanzhang declared himself Emperor Hongwu and established the Ming Dynasty with its capital in the city of Nanjing (later moved to Beijing). The population and economy continued to grow during this age with heightened foreign trade. Perhaps the greatest claim to fame for the Ming Dynasty was the construction of the Forbidden City. This lavish imperial palace was built from 1406-1420 and was centered in Beijing. In the likes of the Versailles Palace it served as the luxurious home for the emperor. For nearly 500 years it housed the imperial family and to this day it remains one of the most iconic landmarks of China (alongside the Great Wall).
The Ming Dynasty made significant improvements to western relations with increased trade and diplomacy. This was no doubt influenced by the explorations of Marco Polo that also gave way to Christian missionaries. During this time China experienced yet another golden economic boom with the invention of porcelain (hence why the display cases are referred to as china cabinets today). There was also a renaissance of literature, culture, and the arts during these times.
While the Mongolians had lost their control on China, they still had not completely withered away. During the 1400 and 1500s they continued various assaults upon mainland China. In response to this the Ming Dynasty strengthened the Great Wall on the northern borders. Also during the 1500s trade in the Pacific Seas became highly contested and the Ming Dynasty was able to repel various attacks from Portuguese, Dutch, and Japanese pirates. In 1556 the deadliest earthquake in history occurred in the central region of Shaanxi killing 830,000 people. By around the late 1500s the Ming's began to lose control of the northeastern regions of China due to the rising power of the Manchu tribes.
Despite it's conquest of Beijing in 1644 there was still much work for the Qing Dynasty to do until it was able to unite all of China. Nearly 40 years of loyalist fighting continued as many Ming military leaders established a stronghold in the south. Emperor Kangxi strengthened the Qing control in the 1660s with the Great Clearance and defeating the Revolt of the Three Feudatories. By 1683 the fighting came to an end and the Qing Dynasty reigned supreme over China. However this transition of power was one of the most deadly wars in Chinese history costing nearly 25 million lives.
By the end of the great Emperor Qianlong's reign in 1796 the Chinese Empire had emerged as a world power. Their country accounted for one third of the world's population as well a the largest economy in the world. This of course brought heightened attention from the western powers, particularly the vast British Empire. The Opium Wars of 1840 and 1856 marked only the beginning of western dominance over China, in what has been referred to as the Chinese century of humiliation. Following their defeat to the British in 1842, the Qing Dynasty had to cede it's region of Hong Kong and trade routes in the Pacific.
From the 1870s-1890s, China's neighbors to the east, Japan instituted a boom of modernization and expansionism. This was due to their sudden alliance with the western powers, that made Japan the new rising power in the Pacific. In an effort to exert their dominance, Japan waged various military campaigns against China most notably the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894. This marked another major humiliating defeat for the Chinese Qing Dynasty by which they were forced to cede the Korean peninsula to Japanese influence. Things got even worse for the Qing Dynasty after they were defeated by an alliance of western powers during the Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901.
By the turn of the 20th century China was on a major decline due to it's devastating military defeats at the hands of western and Japanese influence. The fall of the Qing Dynasty was ultimately made clear during the Opium Wars, by which China could no longer compete with the modernized western armies. In 1898 the Qing emperor Guangxu made an ambitious effort to reform and modernize the nation however this was brought to an abrupt end by his influential aunt who governed as a regent Empress Dowager Cixi. Despite various other attempts to reform the failing empire, the Qing dynasty had suddenly become the problem in the public's perception.
What's most interesting about my study of ancient imperial China (one of mankind's oldest civilizations) is they never truly invaded another country. One would think a nation as vast and old as China would have achieved great military conquests, however that's really not the case. Of course they conquered neighboring states and regions and established one of the 3rd largest countries in the world. However they never truly invaded and conquered a foreign nation, rather were more-so the conquered by Mongols and to some extent the Japanese.
In this post I want to focus on the ancient history of China. It is one of the oldest civilizations in world history, behind that of Egypt. The first known Chinese dynasty was established in 2070 BC with the Xia Dynasty (Egypt's first dynasty was established 1000 years prior to this, in approx 3100 BC). From this point on China oversaw a long history of dynasties and imperial reigns that lasted until the Xanhai Revolution of 1911 and the establishment of the Republic of China. I will later write about the modern era of Chinese history pertaining to their Xanhai Revolution, the Chinese Civil War, and the establishment of the People's Republic of China.
Ancient China (2070-1046 BC)
Just like many other locations in the world, the region of China had a prehistoric settlement, with inhabitants living in the area as far back as 1.3 millions years ago. This prehistoric age of cavemen is a study in it's own right and for the sake of length here, I'm going to fast forward to the 1st known civilizations of China. During the Bronze Age at approx 5000 BC societies began to develop around the Yellow River utilizing new tools and agriculture. Various cultures and communities flourished during this time such as the Yangshao, the Longshan, Majiayao, Xiajiadian, and the Zhangzhung to name a few.
However it was not until 2070 BC that the first dynasty was established known as the Xia Dynasty. The origins of this dynasty are often mixed with mythological legends pertaining to the Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors. These great heroic leaders are considered the mythological founders of the civilization of China. The legendary Yu the Great is considered the last of these five emperors and the founder of the Xia Dynasty (however his existence in history is disputed). While there is very little known regarding this dynasty, they are most renown for introducing flood control. It is believed the Xia Dynasty reigned in north central China (modern day Henan Province) from 2070-1600 BC.
The next known major civilization to replace the Xia Dynasty was the Shang Dynasty from 1600 to 1046 BC. The existence of this civilization was discovered from ancient writings on oracle bones, however just like the Xia Dynasty there are still many unknowns regarding this civilization. It is believed they dwelled along the Yellow River and had a secession of 31 kings during this age. The civilization eventually relocated to the area of Yin which gave way to a golden age in 1300 BC. During this time the Shang Dyansty made great advancements in mathematics, art, astronomy, tools, and weapons.
Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BC)
In 1046 BC the Zhou Dynasty had emerged and taken control of the north central region of China. The Battle of Muye marked the major transition in power along the Yellow River, that brought an abrupt end to the Shang Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty would go on to become the longest reigning dynasty in Chinese history for nearly 800 years. The 1st king of the Zhou Dynasty was King Wu who introduced the Mandate of Heaven to the Chinese region. This concept essentially proclaimed that the king was chosen by the gods to become the divine ruler of mankind.
By 800 BC the Zhou Dynasty began to further expand their territory to the west (modern day Shanxi province). This eventually led to internal conflicts and civil wars known as the Spring and Autumn period. During this time many smaller states began breaking away from the Zhou authority and establishing their own cultural governments. The Great Wall of China began it's earliest development in this age as warring states wanted to defend themselves. Although China became decentralized during this period the region still underwent a period of renaissance.
In the likes of Classical Greece, China underwent a sudden age of philosophical enlightenment by 600 BC. Many great Asian philosophers lived during this age such as Confucius (religious founder of Confucianism), Lao Tzu (religious founder of Taoism), Menicus (philosopher of Confucianism), Mo Ti (philosopher of Mohism), and Sun-Tzu (the military strategist known for his work The Art of War). Some of the most popular religions and cultural identity was formed during this age. This movement is referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought and lasted until 221 BC.
By the end of the 5th century there were 7 major states in control of the Zhou Dynasty region of China. In 476 BC these states began battling for further control of the region in what is known as the Warring States Period. By this point the Zhou Dynasty was in place mostly as a figurehead and each state ruled on it's own authority. In 221 BC this civil fighting came to an end when Ying Zheng (later known as Qin Shi) was able to unite the states and establish the Qin Dynasty. The unification of the vast region marked a new historical era in China referred to as the Imperial Age.
Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC)
Often referred to as the first emperor, Qin Shi Huang was one of the most sadistic rulers in Chinese history. While he successfully united the states and decentralized a government, he was constantly hungry for power. He's most controversial act was replacing the Confucius state ideology with the system of Legalism (which enacted stricter laws and regulations). In an effort to eliminate his philosophical opponents he had many Confucius texts and scholars burned in 213 BC.
The first emperor however did make several significant advancements for the new empire of China. With his newly established system of Legalism he instituted a new writing code and a form of currency. The mainland territory was expanded further south into the present day regions of Hunan and Guangdong. Also in an effort to solidify their control, the Qin Empire connected and expanded the Great Wall of China on it's northern border.
Perhaps one of Qin Shi's most famous associations is the massive mausoleum tomb he had built. Fearing that his soul would be hunted in the afterlife by his many enemies, he commissioned an army of clay soldiers to protect his tomb. This construction was not discovered until 1974 and today is referred to as the Terracotta Army. Within the grand underground mausoleum stands 8000 soldiers, 130 chariots, and 700 horses. What is even more amazing about this discovery is that this is only a portion of the necropolis. The tomb itself and it's many other surrounding sites have yet to be excavated.
While the Qin Dynasty ultimately laid the groundwork of China's Imperial structure, the reign of Qin Shi was short-lived. At the age of 49, the first emperor died of mercury pills in 210 BC and his dynastic authority was quickly overrun by rebels. The dynasty was followed by a period of instability known as the Chu-Han Contention for control of the imperial throne. This authority eventually went to the rebel statesmen leader, Liu Bang who declared himself emperor of the Han Dynasty in 202 BC.
Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms (202 BC-581 AD)
Expanding on the imperial system established by the Qin Dynasty, the Han Dynasty ushered in China's first golden age (known as a Pax Sinica). This included a long period of peace, innovations, architectural creations, and the flourishing of culture. The religion of Confucianism became tolerable once again which gave way to a national identity. Science, mathematics, art, literature, and poetry flourished during this age. Also perhaps it's most definitive event of this dynasty was the establishment of the Silk Road. This essentially opened up trade to the western regions of Asia.
By around 220 AD, the dynasty was eventually overrun by warlords in a very violent period in Chinese history known as the Three Kingdoms. At this point China was divided into 3 major states; Wei, Shu, and Wu. Each state fought for territorial control in what was the bloodiest event in Chinese history. From 184-280 AD an estimated 40 million people lost their lives in the conflict (2nd only to WWII). The kingdoms were eventually united once again by the Jin Dynasty in 266 AD however this union was also short lived and further civil fighting continued.
While the Jin Dynasty reigned as the supreme power of China situated in the capital of Nanjing, they did not have the authoritative control once held by the Han Dynasty. The northern region of China had broken up into 16 separate kingdoms and by 420 AD the Jin Dynasty had been usurped by new leadership. The Jin Dynasty was later replaced by a string of various dynasties known as the Southern Dynasties. While the northern 16 kingdoms were eventually united by various dynasties in a period that became known as the Northern Dynasties. This period saw the increase of Buddhism and Taoism and lasted until the emergence of the Sui Dynasty in 581 AD.
Sui and Tang Dynasty (581-907 AD)
In the likes of the Qin Dynasty, the Sui Dynasty was a short lived dynasty that reunited China after three centuries of division. Led by emperor Wen in 581 the newly established dynasty instituted a strong government system, furthered territory with expansions to the Great Wall, and experienced another era of flourishing arts. The religions of Buddhism and Taoism replaced Confucianism as the dominant religions. Also during this time the Grand Canal (the world's largest canal) was built in Suzhou. While the dynasty returned China to centralized government, it experienced a quick decline due to the unsuccessful invasion of Korea at the Goguryeo-Sui War. This major defeat gave way for the transition to the Tang Dynasty.
In 618 AD Emperor Gaozu took the reigns of imperial China and established the Tang Dynasty. Picking up where the Sui Dynasty left off, China experienced yet another golden age during this reign. The second emperor of the Tang Dynasty, Taizong is often regarded as the greatest empire in Chinese history. He reigned from 626-649 AD and oversaw many military expansions to the mainland of China. Also during this time the economy of China began to prosper and had became the most populated country in the world.
In 690 AD the first female empress Wu Zetain, took the reins and furthered the military and economic expansions of China. Wu is also renown for her establishment of secret police and spies. In 713 Emperor Xuanzong took the reign for 43 years and oversaw China's territory expand from the Pacific as far as the Aral Sea. This was the pinnacle of the golden age that saw a boom in poetry, technology, science, and literature. However the turning point came during the Lushan Rebellion of 755-763 AD. This revolt began to deteriorate the dynasty and once again gave way to rising warlords and divided states. China was once again split into various kingdoms from 907-960 AD in a period known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.
Song and Yuan Dynasty (960-1368 AD)
In 960 AD China was once again reunited by Emperor Taizu who established the Song Dynasty. However while there were significant technological inventions during this time (such as gunpowder, paper, and the compass) it was by no means a golden age. This era was still defined by territorial military engagements. The outer regions of China were now under the control of nomadic tribes, most notably the Mongolians to their north. Throughout it's reign the Song Dynasty continued to lose control of territory and China was eventually divided into other dynasties such as Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties. However by 1204 AD the Mongol Conquest of China had begun led by the famous Genghis Khan. By 1279 the Mongolians had overthrown all major dynasties in the region by which Kublai Khan (grandson of Genghis) established the Yuan Dynasty. 
The conquest of China by the Mongolians became the first time in history that China was conquered. Kublai Khan centered his Mongol Empire in the heart of China and eventually established Beijing as the capital of the Yuan Dynasty. However while the Mongols were great fighters they did not govern so well and quickly began to lost grasp of their vast stretching empire. After defeats against the Japanese and the Koreans the Mongols decided to halt their military campaign and build the infrastructure of China. During this time the Silk Road to the west was enhanced and eventually gave way to the famous voyages of Italian explorer Marco Polo. Marco Polo is often considered one of the earliest western explorers into the far east, and his journals helped bridge the relationship between Europe and Asia.
By the early 1300s the Mongols began to lose control of the region due to various Mongol civil wars. Furthermore a series of natural disasters and plagues throughout China demonstrated their lack of governing capability. By around the 1340s the Chinese people finally began to resist and revolt against their foreign conquerors of which point the Mongols began to capitulate. This eventually gave way to the famous Battle at Lake Poyang in 1363, considered one of the largest naval conflicts in history. The war was essentially for the new control of China and fought among Chinese rebels. The battle was won by the rebellious Ming leader, Zhu Yuanzhang. Outmatched 200,000 to 650,000 Zhu was still able to defeat the Han rebel leader and thus established the Ming Dynasty.
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD)
In 1368 the victorious Zhu Yuanzhang declared himself Emperor Hongwu and established the Ming Dynasty with its capital in the city of Nanjing (later moved to Beijing). The population and economy continued to grow during this age with heightened foreign trade. Perhaps the greatest claim to fame for the Ming Dynasty was the construction of the Forbidden City. This lavish imperial palace was built from 1406-1420 and was centered in Beijing. In the likes of the Versailles Palace it served as the luxurious home for the emperor. For nearly 500 years it housed the imperial family and to this day it remains one of the most iconic landmarks of China (alongside the Great Wall).
While the Mongolians had lost their control on China, they still had not completely withered away. During the 1400 and 1500s they continued various assaults upon mainland China. In response to this the Ming Dynasty strengthened the Great Wall on the northern borders. Also during the 1500s trade in the Pacific Seas became highly contested and the Ming Dynasty was able to repel various attacks from Portuguese, Dutch, and Japanese pirates. In 1556 the deadliest earthquake in history occurred in the central region of Shaanxi killing 830,000 people. By around the late 1500s the Ming's began to lose control of the northeastern regions of China due to the rising power of the Manchu tribes.
By the early 1600s the Ming Dynasty was losing control of it's region on many fronts. The Manchu tribes had conquered the regions of Manchuria, Korea, and Mongolia and established a Qing Dynasty by 1636 under emperor Hong Taiji. Meanwhile a wave of peasant uprisings spread throughout mainland China. The fall of the Ming Dynasty first began with the rebellious victory of Li Zechang who established the Shun Dynasty in April of 1644. However the remaining Ming leaders sided with the rising Qing Dynasty to defeat the Zechang's armies at the Battle of Shanhai Pass in 1644. This marked the brief end to the Shun Dynasty and ultimately the transition from the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty.
Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD)
Despite it's conquest of Beijing in 1644 there was still much work for the Qing Dynasty to do until it was able to unite all of China. Nearly 40 years of loyalist fighting continued as many Ming military leaders established a stronghold in the south. Emperor Kangxi strengthened the Qing control in the 1660s with the Great Clearance and defeating the Revolt of the Three Feudatories. By 1683 the fighting came to an end and the Qing Dynasty reigned supreme over China. However this transition of power was one of the most deadly wars in Chinese history costing nearly 25 million lives.
At the turn of the 18th century the Qing Dynasty had it's work cut out for them after nearly 100 years of war that lead to a heavy loss of lives and a sharp decline for the Chinese economy. Nonetheless the foreign conquerors assimilated to Chinese culture adapting Confucius and many Han/Chinese customs. However the Ming's did also bring forth their own Manchu customs, such as the iconic hairstyle of a shaved head with a long braided tail. In 1753 Emperor Qianlong began the Ten Great Campaigns to enlarge the territorial region of China. This included victorious campaigns in Tibet, Sichuan, Taiwan, Burma, Vietnam, and Nepal.
In 1850 a Christian led rebellion began known as the Taiping Rebellion which lasted for 14 years and was one the deadliest wars in world history (costing nearly 20 million lives). The rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan in an effort to establish Christianity as the state's religion and overthrow the Qing Dynasty with the new Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The rebellion spread like a wave and was centered in the city of Tianjing (present day Nanjing). After many years of fighting the rebellion was eventually subdued by the Qing generals Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, and Zuo Zongtang who became national heroes. While this was a great victory for the Qing Dynasty it significantly weakened their army and lead to further rebellions and foreign influence.
From the 1870s-1890s, China's neighbors to the east, Japan instituted a boom of modernization and expansionism. This was due to their sudden alliance with the western powers, that made Japan the new rising power in the Pacific. In an effort to exert their dominance, Japan waged various military campaigns against China most notably the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894. This marked another major humiliating defeat for the Chinese Qing Dynasty by which they were forced to cede the Korean peninsula to Japanese influence. Things got even worse for the Qing Dynasty after they were defeated by an alliance of western powers during the Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901.
The Fall of the Chinese Empire
The wave of revolutionary anti-monarchy fervor in the early 1900s was no doubt a global movement and China was simply joining the party. During this time their neighbors to the north, Russia was also in the early stages of their communist revolution that began in 1905. The Chinese revolutionary movement was heavily influenced by philosophical writers such as Liang Qiacho and Sun Yat-sen. The calls for reform finally took an organized shape and culminated in the Wuchang Uprising of 1911. This began the Xinhai Revolution that eventually overthrew the Qing Dynasty and established the Republic of China. (I will write further on this topic as well as the Chinese Civil War in my next posts.)
What's most interesting about my study of ancient imperial China (one of mankind's oldest civilizations) is they never truly invaded another country. One would think a nation as vast and old as China would have achieved great military conquests, however that's really not the case. Of course they conquered neighboring states and regions and established one of the 3rd largest countries in the world. However they never truly invaded and conquered a foreign nation, rather were more-so the conquered by Mongols and to some extent the Japanese.
Yet even despite it's many hardships faced throughout their 4000 year imperial age, the people of China have yet again emerged as one of the most powerful nations in the world. Their incredible landscape, architecture, art, customs, cuisine, philosophy, culture, and so forth is the embodiment of their rich imperial history. While not a dominant race they are a very persistent and resilient race that has truly endured the testament of time. Upon studying this ancient history it comes as no surprise to me that China established a communist regime in the modern age that presently rivals the United States.
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