Historical Look: Imperial China

So now I'm going to completely turn the page on my Pacific War studies and focus on a new Chinese appreciation phase. This sudden interest was inspired from my studies of the Second Sino-Japanese War. I came to the realization that I know very little about the history and culture of the vast land known as China. I enjoy their food, the music, their art, but know very little about their history and customs. For example, what's the deal with the Chinese New Year and their fascination with dragons? I intend to get all the answers in my next few posts regarding China's history, mythology, and culture.

In this post I want to focus on the ancient history of China. It is one of the oldest civilizations in world history, behind that of Egypt. The first known Chinese dynasty was established in 2070 BC with the Xia Dynasty (Egypt's first dynasty was established 1000 years prior to this, in approx 3100 BC). From this point on China oversaw a long history of dynasties and imperial reigns that lasted until the Xanhai Revolution of 1911 and the establishment of the Republic of China. I will later write about the modern era of Chinese history pertaining to their Xanhai Revolution, the Chinese Civil War, and the establishment of the People's Republic of China. 

Ancient China (2070-1046 BC)

Just like many other locations in the world, the region of China had a prehistoric settlement, with  inhabitants living in the area as far back as 1.3 millions years ago. This prehistoric age of cavemen is a study in it's own right and for the sake of length here, I'm going to fast forward to the 1st known civilizations of China. During the Bronze Age at approx 5000 BC societies began to develop around the Yellow River utilizing new tools and agriculture. Various cultures and communities flourished during this time such as the Yangshao, the Longshan, Majiayao, Xiajiadian, and the Zhangzhung to name a few. 

However it was not until 2070 BC that the first dynasty was established known as the Xia Dynasty. The origins of this dynasty are often mixed with mythological legends pertaining to the Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors. These great heroic leaders are considered the mythological founders of the civilization of China. The legendary Yu the Great is considered the last of these five emperors and the founder of the Xia Dynasty (however his existence in history is disputed). While there is very little known regarding this dynasty, they are most renown for introducing flood control. It is believed the Xia Dynasty reigned in north central China (modern day Henan Province) from 2070-1600 BC. 

The next known major civilization to replace the Xia Dynasty was the Shang Dynasty from 1600 to 1046 BC. The existence of this civilization was discovered from ancient writings on oracle bones, however just like the Xia Dynasty there are still many unknowns regarding this civilization. It is believed they dwelled along the Yellow River and had a secession of 31 kings during this age. The civilization eventually relocated to the area of Yin which gave way to a golden age in 1300 BC. During this time the Shang Dyansty made great advancements in mathematics, art, astronomy, tools, and weapons. 

Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BC)

In 1046 BC the Zhou Dynasty had emerged and taken control of the north central region of China. The Battle of Muye marked the major transition in power along the Yellow River, that brought an abrupt end to the Shang Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty would go on to become the longest reigning dynasty in Chinese history for nearly 800 years. The 1st king of the Zhou Dynasty was King Wu who introduced the Mandate of Heaven to the Chinese region. This concept essentially proclaimed that the king was chosen by the gods to become the divine ruler of mankind. 

By 800 BC the Zhou Dynasty began to further expand their territory to the west (modern day Shanxi province). This eventually led to internal conflicts and civil wars known as the Spring and Autumn period. During this time many smaller states began breaking away from the Zhou authority and establishing their own cultural governments. The Great Wall of China began it's earliest development in this age as warring states wanted to defend themselves. Although China became decentralized during this period the region still underwent a period of renaissance. 

In the likes of Classical Greece, China underwent a sudden age of philosophical enlightenment by 600 BC. Many great Asian philosophers lived during this age such as Confucius (religious founder of Confucianism), Lao Tzu (religious founder of Taoism), Menicus (philosopher of Confucianism), Mo Ti (philosopher of Mohism), and Sun-Tzu (the military strategist known for his work The Art of War). Some of the most popular religions and cultural identity was formed during this age. This movement is referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought and lasted until 221 BC. 

By the end of the 5th century there were 7 major states in control of the Zhou Dynasty region of China. In 476 BC these states began battling for further control of the region in what is known as the Warring States Period. By this point the Zhou Dynasty was in place mostly as a figurehead and each state ruled on it's own authority. In 221 BC this civil fighting came to an end when Ying Zheng (later known as Qin Shi) was able to unite the states and establish the Qin Dynasty. The unification of the vast region marked a new historical era in China referred to as the Imperial Age.

Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC)

Often referred to as the first emperor, Qin Shi Huang was one of the most sadistic rulers in Chinese history. While he successfully united the states and decentralized a government, he was constantly hungry for power. He's most controversial act was replacing the Confucius state ideology with the system of Legalism (which enacted stricter laws and regulations). In an effort to eliminate his philosophical opponents he had many Confucius texts and scholars burned in 213 BC. 

The first emperor however did make several significant advancements for the new empire of China. With his newly established system of Legalism he instituted a new writing code and a form of currency. The mainland territory was expanded further south into the present day regions of Hunan and Guangdong. Also in an effort to solidify their control, the Qin Empire connected and expanded the Great Wall of China on it's northern border. 

Perhaps one of Qin Shi's most famous associations is the massive mausoleum tomb he had built. Fearing that his soul would be hunted in the afterlife by his many enemies, he commissioned an army of clay soldiers to protect his tomb. This construction was not discovered until 1974 and today is referred to as the Terracotta Army. Within the grand underground mausoleum stands 8000 soldiers, 130 chariots, and 700 horses. What is even more amazing about this discovery is that this is only a portion of the necropolis. The tomb itself and it's many other surrounding sites have yet to be excavated. 

While the Qin Dynasty ultimately laid the groundwork of China's Imperial structure, the reign of Qin Shi was short-lived. At the age of 49, the first emperor died of mercury pills in 210 BC and his dynastic authority was quickly overrun by rebels. The dynasty was followed by a period of instability known as the Chu-Han Contention for control of the imperial throne. This authority eventually went to the rebel statesmen leader, Liu Bang who declared himself emperor of the Han Dynasty in 202 BC. 

Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms (202 BC-581 AD)

Expanding on the imperial system established by the Qin Dynasty, the Han Dynasty ushered in China's first golden age (known as a Pax Sinica). This included a long period of peace, innovations, architectural creations, and the flourishing of culture. The religion of Confucianism became tolerable once again which gave way to a national identity. Science, mathematics, art, literature, and poetry flourished during this age. Also perhaps it's most definitive event of this dynasty was the establishment of the Silk Road. This essentially opened up trade to the western regions of Asia. 

During it's 400 year reign, the Han Dynasty had many emperors however the most significant was the 7th emperor Wu of Han. He reigned for 54 years from 141-87 BC ushered in the peak of the Han Golden Age. He expanded territory and by promoting Confucius he helped establish the Han ethnicity as the core of China. He was also key in the western exploration and expansion brought forth by the Silk Road which introduced new foreign trade, cultures, and the religion of Buddhism. Following his death the Han Dynasty went into a slow decline and was faced with various usurpers. 

By around 220 AD, the dynasty was eventually overrun by warlords in a very violent period in Chinese history known as the Three Kingdoms. At this point China was divided into 3 major states; Wei, Shu, and Wu. Each state fought for territorial control in what was the bloodiest event in Chinese history. From 184-280 AD an estimated 40 million people lost their lives in the conflict (2nd only to WWII). The kingdoms were eventually united once again by the Jin Dynasty in 266 AD however this union was also short lived and further civil fighting continued. 

While the Jin Dynasty reigned as the supreme power of China situated in the capital of Nanjing, they did not have the authoritative control once held by the Han Dynasty. The northern region of China had broken up into 16 separate kingdoms and by 420 AD the Jin Dynasty had been usurped by new leadership. The Jin Dynasty was later replaced by a string of various dynasties known as the Southern Dynasties. While the northern 16 kingdoms were eventually united by various dynasties in a period that became known as the Northern Dynasties. This period saw the increase of Buddhism and Taoism and lasted until the emergence of the Sui Dynasty in 581 AD.

Sui and Tang Dynasty (581-907 AD)

In the likes of the Qin Dynasty, the Sui Dynasty was a short lived dynasty that reunited China after three centuries of division. Led by emperor Wen in 581 the newly established dynasty instituted a strong government system, furthered territory with expansions to the Great Wall, and experienced another era of flourishing arts. The religions of Buddhism and Taoism replaced Confucianism as the dominant religions. Also during this time the Grand Canal (the world's largest canal) was built in Suzhou. While the dynasty returned China to centralized government, it experienced a quick decline due to the unsuccessful invasion of Korea at the Goguryeo-Sui War. This major defeat gave way for the transition to the Tang Dynasty.

In 618 AD Emperor Gaozu took the reigns of imperial China and established the Tang Dynasty. Picking up where the Sui Dynasty left off, China experienced yet another golden age during this reign. The second emperor of the Tang Dynasty, Taizong is often regarded as the greatest empire in Chinese history. He reigned from 626-649 AD and oversaw many military expansions to the mainland of China. Also during this time the economy of China began to prosper and had became the most populated country in the world. 

In 690 AD the first female empress Wu Zetain, took the reins and furthered the military and economic expansions of China. Wu is also renown for her establishment of secret police and spies. In 713 Emperor Xuanzong took the reign for 43 years and oversaw China's territory expand from the Pacific as far as the Aral Sea. This was the pinnacle of the golden age that saw a boom in poetry, technology, science, and literature. However the turning point came during the Lushan Rebellion of 755-763 AD. This revolt began to deteriorate the dynasty and once again gave way to rising warlords and divided states. China was once again split into various kingdoms from 907-960 AD in a period known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. 

Song and Yuan Dynasty (960-1368 AD)

In 960 AD China was once again reunited by Emperor Taizu who established the Song Dynasty. However while there were significant technological inventions during this time (such as gunpowder, paper, and the compass) it was by no means a golden age. This era was still defined by territorial military engagements. The outer regions of China were now under the control of nomadic tribes, most notably the Mongolians to their north. Throughout it's reign the Song Dynasty continued to lose control of territory and China was eventually divided into other dynasties such as Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties. However by 1204 AD the Mongol Conquest of China had begun led by the famous Genghis Khan. By 1279 the Mongolians had overthrown all major dynasties in the region by which Kublai Khan (grandson of Genghis) established the Yuan Dynasty. 

The conquest of China by the Mongolians became the first time in history that China was conquered. Kublai Khan centered his Mongol Empire in the heart of China and eventually established Beijing as the capital of the Yuan Dynasty. However while the Mongols were great fighters they did not govern so well and quickly began to lost grasp of their vast stretching empire. After defeats against the Japanese and the Koreans the Mongols decided to halt their military campaign and build the infrastructure of China. During this time the Silk Road to the west was enhanced and eventually gave way to the famous voyages of Italian explorer Marco Polo. Marco Polo is often considered one of the earliest western explorers into the far east, and his journals helped bridge the relationship between Europe and Asia. 

By the early 1300s the Mongols began to lose control of the region due to various Mongol civil wars. Furthermore a series of natural disasters and plagues throughout China demonstrated their lack of governing capability. By around the 1340s the Chinese people finally began to resist and revolt against their foreign conquerors of which point the Mongols began to capitulate. This eventually gave way to the famous Battle at Lake Poyang in 1363, considered one of the largest naval conflicts in history. The war was essentially for the new control of China and fought among Chinese rebels. The battle was won by the rebellious Ming leader, Zhu Yuanzhang. Outmatched 200,000 to 650,000 Zhu was still able to defeat the Han rebel leader and thus established the Ming Dynasty. 

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD)

In 1368 the victorious Zhu Yuanzhang declared himself Emperor Hongwu and established the Ming Dynasty with its capital in the city of Nanjing (later moved to Beijing). The population and economy continued to grow during this age with heightened foreign trade. Perhaps the greatest claim to fame for the Ming Dynasty was the construction of the Forbidden City. This lavish imperial palace was built from 1406-1420 and was centered in Beijing. In the likes of the Versailles Palace it served as the luxurious home for the emperor. For nearly 500 years it housed the imperial family and to this day it remains one of the most iconic landmarks of China (alongside the Great Wall).

The Ming Dynasty made significant improvements to western relations with increased trade and diplomacy. This was no doubt influenced by the explorations of Marco Polo that also gave way to Christian missionaries. During this time China experienced yet another golden economic boom with the invention of porcelain (hence why the display cases are referred to as china cabinets today). There was also a renaissance of literature, culture, and the arts during these times.

While the Mongolians had lost their control on China, they still had not completely withered away. During the 1400 and 1500s they continued various assaults upon mainland China. In response to this the Ming Dynasty strengthened the Great Wall on the northern borders. Also during the 1500s trade in the Pacific Seas became highly contested and the Ming Dynasty was able to repel various attacks from Portuguese, Dutch, and Japanese pirates. In 1556 the deadliest earthquake in history occurred in the central region of Shaanxi killing 830,000 people. By around the late 1500s the Ming's began to lose control of the northeastern regions of China due to the rising power of the Manchu tribes.

By the early 1600s the Ming Dynasty was losing control of it's region on many fronts. The Manchu tribes had conquered the regions of Manchuria, Korea, and Mongolia and established a Qing Dynasty by 1636 under emperor Hong Taiji. Meanwhile a wave of peasant uprisings spread throughout mainland China. The fall of the Ming Dynasty first began with the rebellious victory of Li Zechang who established the Shun Dynasty in April of 1644. However the remaining Ming leaders sided with the rising Qing Dynasty to defeat the Zechang's armies at the Battle of Shanhai Pass in 1644. This marked the brief end to the Shun Dynasty and ultimately the transition from the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty. 

Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD)

Despite it's conquest of Beijing in 1644 there was still much work for the Qing Dynasty to do until it was able to unite all of China. Nearly 40 years of loyalist fighting continued as many Ming military leaders established a stronghold in the south. Emperor Kangxi strengthened the Qing control in the 1660s with the Great Clearance and defeating the Revolt of the Three Feudatories. By 1683 the fighting came to an end and the Qing Dynasty reigned supreme over China. However this transition of power was one of the most deadly wars in Chinese history costing nearly 25 million lives. 

At the turn of the 18th century the Qing Dynasty had it's work cut out for them after nearly 100 years of war that lead to a heavy loss of lives and a sharp decline for the Chinese economy. Nonetheless the foreign conquerors assimilated to Chinese culture adapting Confucius and many Han/Chinese customs. However the Ming's did also bring forth their own Manchu customs, such as the iconic hairstyle of a shaved head with a long braided tail. In 1753 Emperor Qianlong began the Ten Great Campaigns to enlarge the territorial region of China. This included victorious campaigns in Tibet, Sichuan, Taiwan, Burma, Vietnam, and Nepal. 

By the end of the great Emperor Qianlong's reign in 1796 the Chinese Empire had emerged as a world power. Their country accounted for one third of the world's population as well a the largest economy in the world. This of course brought heightened attention from the western powers, particularly the vast British Empire. The Opium Wars of 1840 and 1856 marked only the beginning of western dominance over China, in what has been referred to as the Chinese century of humiliation. Following their defeat to the British in 1842, the Qing Dynasty had to cede it's region of Hong Kong and trade routes in the Pacific.

In 1850 a Christian led rebellion began known as the Taiping Rebellion which lasted for 14 years and was one the deadliest wars in world history (costing nearly 20 million lives). The rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan in an effort to establish Christianity as the state's religion and overthrow the Qing Dynasty with the new Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The rebellion spread like a wave and was centered in the city of Tianjing (present day Nanjing). After many years of fighting the rebellion was eventually subdued by the Qing generals Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, and Zuo Zongtang who became national heroes. While this was a great victory for the Qing Dynasty it significantly weakened their army and lead to further rebellions and foreign influence.

From the 1870s-1890s, China's neighbors to the east, Japan instituted a boom of modernization and expansionism. This was due to their sudden alliance with the western powers, that made Japan the new rising power in the Pacific. In an effort to exert their dominance, Japan waged various military campaigns against China most notably the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894. This marked another major humiliating defeat for the Chinese Qing Dynasty by which they were forced to cede the Korean peninsula to Japanese influence. Things got even worse for the Qing Dynasty after they were defeated by an alliance of western powers during the Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901.

The Fall of the Chinese Empire

By the turn of the 20th century China was on a major decline due to it's devastating military defeats at the hands of western and Japanese influence. The fall of the Qing Dynasty was ultimately made clear during the Opium Wars, by which China could no longer compete with the modernized western armies. In 1898 the Qing emperor Guangxu made an ambitious effort to reform and modernize the nation however this was brought to an abrupt end by his influential aunt who governed as a regent Empress Dowager Cixi. Despite various other attempts to reform the failing empire, the Qing dynasty had suddenly become the problem in the public's perception.

The wave of revolutionary anti-monarchy fervor in the early 1900s was no doubt a global movement and China was simply joining the party. During this time their neighbors to the north, Russia was also in the early stages of their communist revolution that began in 1905. The Chinese revolutionary movement was heavily influenced by philosophical writers such as Liang Qiacho and Sun Yat-sen. The calls for reform finally took an organized shape and culminated in the Wuchang Uprising of 1911. This began the Xinhai Revolution that eventually overthrew the Qing Dynasty and established the Republic of China. (I will write further on this topic as well as the Chinese Civil War in my next posts.) 

What's most interesting about my study of ancient imperial China (one of mankind's oldest civilizations) is they never truly invaded another country. One would think a nation as vast and old as China would have achieved great military conquests, however that's really not the case. Of course they conquered neighboring states and regions and established one of the 3rd largest countries in the world. However they never truly invaded and conquered a foreign nation, rather were more-so the conquered by Mongols and to some extent the Japanese. 

Yet even despite it's many hardships faced throughout their 4000 year imperial age, the people of China have yet again emerged as one of the most powerful nations in the world. Their incredible landscape, architecture, art, customs, cuisine, philosophy, culture, and so forth is the embodiment of their rich imperial history. While not a dominant race they are a very persistent and resilient race that has truly endured the testament of time. Upon studying this ancient history it comes as no surprise to me that China established a communist regime in the modern age that presently rivals the United States.    

Game Review: Assassin's Creed Chronicles: China

Well my original plan was to finish AC Unity then transition into AC Black Flag, however as we all know life doesn't always go according to plans. As I have recently embarked on my Pacific War phase, it has opened up a whole new realm of cultural curiosity; that of Asia. It's a region I know very little of, and until just recently I have hardly ever written about. I knew very little regarding Japan's history prior to WWII, specifically the atrocious role they played in the invasion of China. I feel the Second Sino-Japanese War is a historical event that is often overlooked by the greater conflict that was WWII. Stemming from this curiosity I intend to make a further dive into the cultures of Japan and China.

I've already written 3 posts regarding the Empire of Japan and their role in WWII, and hope to eventually go back further into their history and culture. However now I shall turn to China, hence the purpose for this post. The game I decided to divert away from my usual European settings is Assassin's Creed Chronicles: China. Unlike most Assassin's Creed games, this games provides the unique format of a 2.5 dimension side-scroller. The franchise produced 3 games in this format taking place in India, China, and Russia. (I plan to later play the Chronicles games set in India and Russia).

The game play was fairly easy for the most part and brought about all the iconic features of the game series. It required stealth, combat skills, puzzle solving, and an arsenal of weapons. The main objective of each mission was to reach a target and avoid being detected by enemy guards. Like in most AC games fighting more than one enemy at a time is very difficult so it's best to be stealthy. Each location offers various platforms with guards on patrol. What makes this game a notch above an older console is the depth it provides. While the assassin can face it's enemy in the linear dimension, it can also hide behind bushes or pillars located beyond the platform, hence a unique 3 dimensional experience.

Unlike other AC games where I spent weeks engaged in the detailed map this one I was able to zip thru in a matter of days. However my favorite thing about the game was the cultural backdrop of the Chinese Empire. This setting takes place around 1526 and details the imperial court of the Qing Dynasty and it's glorious Forbidden City. The main assassin in this game is the female Shao Jun who was previously trained by Ezio Auditore (the protagonist from AC II, AC: Brotherhood, and AC Revelations). Shao is out for vengeance against the powerful gang known as the Eight Tigers, who wiped out the assassin's brotherhood in China.

While the game was fairly easy I was very inspired by the colorful Chinese locations set in Macau, Na'an, the Forbidden City, and the Great Wall. What occurred to me as I played this game is that China has some very impressive architecture. The first thing that comes to mind when I think of Chinese architectural wonders is the Great Wall. While the wall is no doubt among their most iconic landmarks, there are still many other Chinese sites as impressive as the famous European ones. The imperial court of the Forbidden City has to rank among the greatest royal palaces in the world.  

Historical Study: The Pacific War

So now after a couple precursor posts (see History of Empire of Japan and Second Sino-Japanese War) it's time to get to the main course regarding my recent study of the Pacific War. As I've noted in the previous two posts WWII was the most atrocious events in human history and the conflict was waged on various fronts. The reason we refer to this event as a world war and not simply the Great

European War or the Great Pacific War is because it was a global affair. It involved various alliances and was fought on various geographical locations, known as theaters. So let me emphasis here that the Pacific War was ultimately a theater of World War II. 

Now the start of the Pacific War is something that could be up for debate, however is generally accepted to have begun when the United States declared war on Japan on December 7th of 1941. Yet since the Empire of Japan formed an alliance with Nazi Germany in 1936 they had begun a campaign of military aggression in the Pacific. One could make the case that WWII and the Pacific War began on July 7th, 1937 when the Japanese armies invaded China. However this engagement, known as the Second Sino-Japanese War is categorized as a separate military event from the Pacific War. When Japan decided to bomb Pearl Harbor on December 7th of 1941, they began a two front simultaneous war. Against the Chinese on their western front and against the Americans on their eastern front.

The Bombing of Pearl Harbor 

The day that lived in infamy, the bombing of Pearl Harbor, was in the works for a while for Imperial Japan. The relationship between US and Japan had taken a sour turn by the mid 1920s with new anti-Asian immigration acts and foreign influence in the Pacific. As Japan began it's new fervor of nationalism in the likes of Germany and Italy, America was seen as the center of the detested system of capitalism. Yet Japan still managed to keep diplomatic ties with the US, until the onset of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937. The United States quickly took the side of China in this affair and began sending financial and military supplies to the Chinese armies. From this point on the US and Japan were no longer friends, and the situation reached a boiling point when the US enacted an embargo on Japanese oil in July 26th of 1941.

At the urging of their German allies, the Japanese began their plan as a preemptive strike. Since the US had already been supplying aid to the allies in Europe and in China, the Axis powers presumed they would sooner or later join the conflict. Therefore Japan made a gamble to eliminate America's closest navy base located in Hawaii. By coordinating this surprise attack Japan had hoped to re-exert their dominance in the Pacific region and force the United States into a settlement of neutrality. However this was a total oversight by the Japanese command, who simply poked the sleeping bear into a total war.

The attack on Pearl Harbor was carried out in the early morning of December 7th, 1941 and completely caught the Americans off guard. By using the element of surprise the Japanese were able to inflict heavy damage on the navy base destroying 8 battleships, 188 aircraft, and killing 2403 Americans. Also during this time Japanese waged invasions all throughout the Pacific, including Guam, Hong Kong, the Philippines, and a full scale invasion of Thailand. The United States was infuriated by this devastating attack and declared war upon Japan the following day. Furthermore they declared war upon Japan's ally of Germany the same day. A sudden sentiment of patriotism arose due to this attack, and Japan's idea that America would not fully engage was completely miscalculated.

The Allied Response

Before the United States could fully mobilize and deploy it's troops to the Pacific, the British allies took to the early fighting in Asia. However at the time Britain was one of the last standing western powers against Nazi Germany and hardly had the resources to fight off Japan as well. By January of 1942 the Japanese aggression in Asia continued to expand with their conquest of Burma. During this time Japan carried out many other aerial attacks of key allied bases particularly against northern Australia. While Thailand, Burma, and Hong Kong quickly fell to the Japanese, the Philippines were able to resist for a year until they also were conquered. 

The American response finally took action first with the Doolittle Raid on April 18th, 1942. This mission was led by famed American pilot, Lt James Doolittle as a bombardment over Tokyo. While the damage was minimal in comparison to Pearl Harbor, it served it's purpose as a demonstration of power to Japan and a morale boost for America. General Douglas MacArthur was named as the commander of the American invasion of the Pacific. However the first few battles consisted of aerial battles and naval warship engagements such as the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway. The Americans achieved their first major victory as a counteroffensive to Japanese attacks at the Battle of Midway. 

The Battle of Midway was a devastating loss for Japan and marked the real beginning of the American offensive. By the summer of 1942 the Americans were able to initiate their landing campaigns in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The first land engagement between the Americans and the Japanese took place at the Battle of Guadalcanal in August of 1942. This battle in the jungle had heavy causalities on both sides including 7100 dead Americans and 19200 dead Japanese soldiers. After nearly 6 months of intense fighting the American allies had secured the island and forced the Japanese to retreat. The battle for New Guinea however was not so easily won and would last for another several years. 

The Allied Offensive

By capturing the Solomon Islands and winning various naval battles in the Pacific the American allies were able secure a base of operations. However despite the Japanese retreating they still waged various aggressive campaigns on their eastern front against China at this time. By the summer of 1943 the Japanese had secured their conquest of Burma against the Chinese and British allies. At this point the Americans came to the realization that China was not going to offer them much offensive help on the eastern front. Therefore the definitive course of the war against Japan was fought in the Pacific rather than in China.

By the winter of 1943-1944 the American navy furthered it's territorial control in the Pacific by occupying the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. They also began a new campaign of submarine warfare in the Pacific sinking many Japanese navy and merchant ships. This eventually gave way to the Mariana and Palau campaigns in June of 1944. The Battle of the Philippine Sea marked a major turning point in the Pacific War where the Americans were able to finally crush Japanese' naval carrier force. Thru this victory the Americans were able to establish a presence on the island of Guam and prepare for their landings on the Philippine islands.

The Philippines Campaign

As Japan continued to lose more territory in the Pacific theater, in 1944 they launched their largest offensive yet in China known as Operation Ichi-Go. The goal of this operation was to strengthen their occupied territory along the eastern coast of China. They deployed 500,000 men to solidify this control and build a railway connecting northeast China to the Indochina region. While the operation was a success for the Japanese by December of 1944, they had simultaneously lost control of the Burma region to the Chinese/British allies around the same time.  

Following the American victory at the Battle of the Philippines Sea the Americans were able to begin their Philippines Campaign in October of 1944. The naval Battle of Leyte Gulf was just as massive as the Battle of the Philippines and is considered the largest naval battle in history. This included many warships and the dawn of Japan's infamous kamikaze aerial tactics. The use of Japanese suicide bombers truly demonstrates the madness the Japanese armies had reached. While completely barbaric, this kamikaze tactic proved effective at sinking many American warships. Despite all this the Americans were able to win the battle and further devastate Japanese' naval control. 

Following this battle the Americans began landing on various islands throughout the Philippines, such as Leyte, Mindoro, and Luzon. This land campaign to recapture the occupied islands of the Philippines was lead by the famous American general Douglas MacArthur. The US was aided by Philippines resistance forces during this operation. Some of the most deadly land battles of the Pacific War occurred during this campaign, primarily at the Battle of Luzon. This battle became a drawn out guerrilla engagement throughout the jungles of the Pacific and did not fully conclude until the end of WWII. 

Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa

Now two of the most famous battles of the Pacific War took place on the islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. These were the bloodiest conflicts the Americans fought against the Japanese. While the war was practically won in Europe and just about over in the Pacific, the Japanese still refused to ease off. By this point the Japanese army had instilled a fight-until-death mentality despite the minimal odds that they would be victorious. Suicide missions became a new tactical norm for the Japanese military. This certainly must have been a dark reality for Japanese soldiers who knew they were fighting without any chance of survival. 

In February of 1945 the Americans began their Operation Detachment to establish a base near mainland Japan The island of Iwo Jima was designated as ideal for military staging operations and thus the Americans began their attack. However the island was considered very sacred to the Japanese and they were unwilling to hand it over without a fight. The Japanese army built a strong bunker resistance within the mountain of Suribachi. From here they were able to withstand the naval bombardment of the Americans for nearly 5 weeks. Extremely outnumbered however the Americans eventually captured the island at the atrocious cost of nearly 7000 American soldiers and 18,000 Japanese. 

This battle became most iconic for the photograph of Americans raising the flag on Mount Suribachi. The photograph instantly became famous and was used as a marketing tool for publicity yet also a patriotic rally cry. The Battle of Iwo Jima was no doubt yet another major victory for the Americans, however it is often considered a controversial decision. After the battle was won, the island hardly served much of a strategic purpose for the remainder of the war. One could certainly make the case that the operation in Iwo Jima was not worth the lives lost.

The bloodiest of all American battles in the Pacific War occurred in April 1945 at the Battle of Okinawa. This island was designated to be America's central base for it's planned invasion of mainland Japan to be known as Operation Downfall. However once again the Japanese soldiers were stubborn even at the face of defeat and put up a ferocious resistance. The fighting took place in the sea and on land and required heavy use of amphibious battleships and tanks. The kamikazes yet again proved to be devastating for the American ships. After nearly 3 months of ferocious fighting the Americans had secured the island, however it came at a devastating cost of 14,000 dead Americans and 110,000 dead Japanese. 

The Bombings of Tokyo, Hiroshima, and Nagasaki

On May 8th, 1945 the allied forces has secured victory in Europe however the war waged on in the Pacific. Despite losing their German allies and being completely surrounded by the Soviet, British, and American armies the Japanese refused to surrender. Around this time the American's had begun to unfold their final Operation Downfall to invade mainland Japan. The base of this operation was secured with the victory at Okinawa however the aerial bombardments had already begun several weeks prior. The infamous bombings of Tokyo, Hiroshima, and Nagasaki eventually forced the Japanese to surrender and thus the full scale invasion never occurred. 

The bombing of Tokyo is not quite as well known as the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki yet the immediate death toll was higher. This bombing known as Operation Meetinghouse was carried out on March of 9th of 1945. In the likes of the bombardment of Dresden, Germany, the entire city of Tokyo was engulfed in flames due to the American firebombing. This bombing resulted in approx 100,000 killed Japanese most of which were civilians. It is the most destructive single air attack of the entire World War II.

With the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in April of 1945, Harry S. Truman assumed the presidency and was faced with final stages of WWII. Perhaps one of his most difficult and controversial decisions he had to make was to drop the nuclear bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This weapon had been in development under the Manhattan Project since the discovery of nuclear fission in 1938. By the summer of 1945 it had been tested and was prepared to be used in conflict; all that remained was the green light.

The city of Hiroshima was chosen as a target due to it's industrial and military stronghold and became the guinea pig of the newly developed atomic bomb. On August 6th, 1945 the American air-bomber known as the Enola Gay dropped the "Little Boy" over Hiroshima. The explosion created a massive mushroom cloud and resulted in the instantaneous death of 70,000 (which later expanded to 126,000 from the bomb's after effects). Japan and the rest of the world watched in horror as the United States had successfully developed and deployed a weapon of mass destruction.

A day after this bombing Harry S. Truman warned Japan to surrender or they would face further destruction as demonstrated in Hiroshima. However still in defiance Japan refused to surrender assuming that America could not have many more weapons such as this. They were proved wrong however with the bombing of Nagasaki on August 9th which resulted in the sudden death of 35,000 (later 80,000 due to after effects). This attack was carried out by the Bockscar air-bomber who dropped the atomic bomb nicknamed the "Fat Man". As terrible as these civilian causalities were, to be fair the Japanese committed far more civilian massacres in China. Nonetheless this was a terrible showing of power from the United States and remains to this day one of the most controversial decisions in history.  

The Surrender of Japan

On the same day of the bombing of Nagasaki, the Soviet Union declared war upon Japan and invaded Manchuria. At this point unable to withstand anymore devastation Japan finally surrendered on August 15th in what became known as Victory in Japan Day. This brought an end to the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Pacific War, and ultimately World War II. Japan officially signed the Potsdam Terms on September 2nd of 1945. This essentially returned all of China's territory back, while Japan was to be occupied by America. General Douglas MacArthur took leadership of the US occupation of Japan which oversaw a period of demilitarization and economic resurgence.

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was held in Tokyo in April of 1946 to decide the fate of Japan's leaders during WWII. Many leaders were sentenced to death or life imprisonment for their war crimes, specifically pertaining to their inhuman invasion of China. Surprisingly at the bidding of Gen MacArthur, the Emperor Hirohito did not have to abdicate his throne and was declared merely a spectator in most of the affair. By 1952 the American occupation had ended with a booming economy and strong relations between the US and Japan. Meanwhile the Soviet Union had become the new superpower in the east which gave way to a long period known as the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. 

Historical Study: The Second Sino-Japanese War

I have been fascinated with the history of WWII since I can remember however have always gravitated towards the European theater. Well now I've decided to make a deep dive specifically on the Pacific front of the war. I have written many times now about WWII, including a general study of the event; (Historical Look: World War II). However in that general study I only briefly mentioned the Pacific theater pertaining to the Japanese Aggression of Pearl Harbor and it's final demise with the notorious bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Therefore I now intend to make a 2-part study on the historical timeline of the Pacific War. It began with the Second Sino-Japenese War of July 1937 and ended with the American nuclear bombings of Japan in August 1945.

I'm going to split up my study of the Pacific theater of WWII into two parts; the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War. It's quite interesting how these conflicts overlapped with one another to be a part of the greater WWII. What began with a Japanese war against China in 1937 later became a two front war when Japan bombed Pearl Harbor in 1941. (I will address the timeline of the United States engagement with Japan in my next post.)

For now, in this post I will focus primarily on the Japanese invasion of China known as the Second Sino-Japanese War. This large scale war cost nearly 25 million causalities, making it one of the deadliest wars in Asian history. It is often overlooked by the deadly western and eastern theaters in Europe however this battlefield in China was no doubt the holocaust of Asia. Below is some causalities comparisons To demonstrate where exactly  these theaters fall among the major fronts of WWII. (these numbers are according to Wikipedia).


Major Theaters of WWII

• Eastern Front
• Soviet Casualties: 10 million
• Nazi Casualties: 5.1 million
• Second Sino-Japanese War
• Chinese Casualties: 10.6 million
• Japanese Casualties: 5 million
• Western Front: 
• Allied Casualties: 3 million 
• Nazi Casualties: 5.4 million
• Pacific Theatre
• Allied Casualties: 4 million
• Japanese Casualties: 2.5 million
• African Campaigns
• Allied Causalities: 238,500
• Italian/Nazi Casualties: 620,000

In assessing the death toll, the Second Sino-Japanese War was just about as deadly as the Eastern Front of WWII. It's quite interesting that both Germany and Japan decided to fight a 2 front war on their east and west. While the invasions of Russia and China were reasoned as aggressive expansionism, it was ultimately the downfall of both Axis Powers. I often wonder had Germany not invaded Russia or Japan not invaded China, how differently the war may have gone. Nonetheless it made for a vast global conflict on many fronts, hence why it is referred to today as a world war. 

Second Sino-Japanese War

In my previous post regarding the history of the Empire of Japan, I discussed how Japan modernized their country in the 1870-1890's and became a world power at the turn of the 20th century. Around this time they began a series of military campaigns to exert their dominance in the eastern Asian region. This included the 1st Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, and the Russo-Japanese War all of which significantly extended Japanese territory by the end of 1904. These victories for Japan, led to internal conflict within their neighbors of China and Russia. The Russian and Chinese Revolutions followed shortly after which marked the sudden arrival of communism in the Eastern Asian region.

Invasion of Manchuria

The Japanese tension with China reached new heights during the Great Depression that sparked a sudden boom of Japanese nationalism. In an effort to re-exert their dominance in the region, Japan staged the Murken Incident in 1931 as a pretext of war (quite similar to the staged Reichstag Fire of 1933). The incident was a railway explosion in the contested region of Manchuria, staged by the Japanese to give blame to the Chinese. The Japanese used this incident as justification for their invasion of Manchuria in Sept 1931. By 1932 the Japan had succeeded in conquering the region and renamed it as Manchukuo. While this did not lead to immediate war with China it was certainly the tipping point. (Also of note China was still in the midst of a Civil War during this time from 1927 to 1936).

By the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1936 Mao Zedong had established a new communist Republic of China. The Empire of Japan considered communism a great threat and signed a new alliance with Nazi Germany in 1936 known as the Anti-Comintern Pact. The burning tensions between Japan and China finally gave way with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in July 1937. This minor dispute on the outskirts of Beijing quickly escalated into a full scale Japanese invasion of China. This marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War and is often considered as the start to WWII (rather than Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland).

Invasion of Beijing, Shanghai, Nanjing, and Wuhan

The beginning stages of the war took place with the invasion of Beijing and it's port city of Tainjin. This initial invasion by Imperial Japan was met with minimal resistance and the Chinese Revolutionary Army was forced to retreat from Beijing. The Chinese military forces did however manage to organize and establish a defense at the city of Shanghai. On August 13th 1937 the Battle of Shanghai became the bloodiest battle of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Chinese revolutionary armies had a well organized defense within the city however could not match their hand guns with the artillery of Japan's army. This resulted in another Japanese victory at the cost of 187,000 Chinese soldiers and 59,000 Japanese soldiers. 

The Imperial army continued their march along the Chinese eastern coast towards their capital city of Nanjing. The Battle of Nanjing began in December of 1937 and was once again another pummeling of the Chinese forces at the hands of the Japanese army. The Japanese invasion of this city lead to the horrific Nanjing Massacre by which the Japanese army murdered nearly 300,000 Chinese soldiers and civilians. Despite the ease by which Japan had conquered the eastern coastline, China did not surrender and reorganized it's military further inland.   

By early 1938 the Empire of Japan had intended to halt their aggression in China to strengthen their control of the eastern coast. However this message never made it to China, and Japanese commanders continued their invasion further westward. The Battle of Xuzhuo was waged in March of 1938 and was yet another victory for the imperial army. However shortly after their invasion was repelled at the Battle of Tai'erzhaung which marked the first victory for the Chinese army. In response to this defeat Japan intensified their engagement with a large scale bombardment of the central city of Wuhan. This marked yet another major defeat for the Chinese armies however they still refused to surrender.

The Chinese central command moved further inland to the city of Chongqing. In effort to slow the Japanese advance, various damns along the Yellow River were opened, which caused massive flooding in the Zhengzhou eastern-central region. This resulted in a terrible affliction upon the rural civilians causing nearly a million deaths related to drowning and approx 10 million refugees. To further worsen the situation Japan began aerial bombardments of many major Chinese cities such as their stronghold of Chongqing, which resulted in millions of civilian causalities. 

Chinese Winter Offensive and Stalemate

Although China did not have the industrial modern capacity that Japan had they still were unwilling to surrender. In the spring of 1939 they achieved a string of victories in the eastern-central region beginning with the Battle of Suizao, Battle of Changsha, and the Battle of South Guangxi. Following these victories the Chinese armies launched their first counter-offensive in November of 1939. While the Chinese were able to recapture some of their territory they ultimately had to halt the offensive by March of 1940 due to inferior weapons. While the offensive was ultimately a failure it still demonstrated Chinese resilience amidst the Japanese occupation. Many of the occupied Chinese cities began to resist against their Japanese puppet governments.

By the spring of 1940 the war had reached a stalemate as Japanese strengthened their hold on the east, the Chinese built up their military arsenal. During this time the Chinese still waged various guerrilla and resistance attacks against the Japanese armies. In August of 1940 the Chinese launched another counteroffensive known as the Hundred Regiments Offensive. This time the campaign was successful in driving out the Japanese occupation from north central China. In response to this however the Japanese began committing further war crimes by enacting a new policy of "Three Alls Policy" which essentially meant to kill all, loot all, and burn all. 

Entry of the United States

The United States had supported China since the start of the war by sending the Chinese financial and military aid and warning Japan to leave. The Americans also provided volunteer soldiers and pilots known as the Flying Tigers that fought against the Japanese Air Force. However the final straw for Imperial Japan came in April of 1941 when the United States placed an oil embargo on them until they removed their armies from China. This ultimately led to the planning and execution of the Pearl Harbor bombings in December 7th of 1941. (I will write further on this historic attack in my next post pertaining to the Pacific War).

Following the bombing of Pearl Harbor the Americans finally officially declared war on Japan, Germany, and Italy. This ultimately marked the turning point for the Chinese, who now were a part of the "Big Four Policemen" alliance including the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. China achieved another major victory in January of 1942 at the Battle of Changsha which impressed their new allies. Japan now found itself in the midst of a two front war in China and in the islands of the Pacific against the Americans. 

Despite the onset of the Pacific War, Japan was more than prepared for this double operation, and by the spring of 1942 they had furthered their territorial control with the conquest of Burma (aided by Thailand). They also furthered the war crimes against Chinese civilians by spreading disease that lead to the Chinese Famine of 1942-1943. To make matters more difficult for the Chinese, their supposed ally, the Soviet Union, refused to allow the United States supply them in the northwestern regions of Kazakhstan and Xinjiang. 

China-Burma-India Theater

By the fall of 1943 the allied forces began landing and organizing in South East Asia to initiate an offensive against the Japanese Armies. This new theater, known as the China-Burma-India Theatre now merged the conflict of WWII with the Second Sino-Japanese War. American General Joseph Stilwell intended to drive the Japanese occupation out of China, however he quickly came in conflict with other Chinese generals who did not want to attack yet rather wait-out the conflict. With the entry of the United States, Chinese leaders felt they had lost enough life and should rather sustain a defensive position. From this point on the Americans and the allied forces decided to revert their full offensive attention in the Pacific theater while defending against anymore Japanese aggression in China. 

Things grew more complicated for Chinese relations with the allies, who felt they were be used simply as manpower in the Burma theater. In a major slap to their British allies, the Chinese government supported the new Indian Independence movement that had arisen under Mahatma Gandhi. By 1944 however Chinese and allied forces had begun to repel the Japanese armies from Burma. While Japan lost territory in the Pacific they embarked on their largest offensive yet in China, known as Operation Ichi-Go. During this campaign Japanese initiated heavy aerial bombardments of American bases in China and linked up their railway from Manchuria to Vietnam. The allied relations with China continued to deteriorate due to this defeat.

Chinese armies eventually focused the bulk of their offensive in the southern Burma theater while Japan strengthened their hold of the eastern coast and once again pushed further inland. The Defense of Hengyang in June of 1944 proved to be one of the Chinese army's more honorable stands as they withheld a siege for 48 days before they eventually capitulated. By late 1944 due to the consistent pressure from the Americans in the Pacific the Japanese armies had to cease their Operation Ichi-Go. This gave way for the final Chinese counter-offensive known as Operation White Tower. Chinese thus withdrew the bulk of their forces from Burma and began an offensive into the occupied regions of the northeast. 

The Surrender of Japanese Forces

The Chinese armies began to acheive victories into the north-central occupied territories, such as at the Battle of West Hunan in April of 1945 and the Second Guangxi Campaign in August of 1945. By reclaiming the city of Guangdong the Chinese had finally established control of a port city by which they intended to march further north of. However by this point the Japanese were alone in their world war, and the Americans had control of most islands in the Pacific. The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as well as the Soviet Invasion of Manchuria in August of 1945 brought a swift end to the Second Sino-Japanese War as well as WWII. Under the command of General Douglas MacArthur the Japanese formally surrendered to Chinese general Chiang Kai-shek. 

In the aftermath of the war, China reclaimed it's territory that was invaded by Japan and returned to it's internal Civil War between the communists and the nationalists. The Chinese Civil War went on for another 4 years until the Chinese Communists led by Mao Zedong were finally able to achieve victory in 1949. The nationalist leaders of China retreated to Taiwan, of which tension still remains to this day. The Chinese Civil War is yet another major historical event that I hope to someday dive further into. It's amazing all the overlapping historical events that occurred pertaining to WWII. However this concludes the general synopsis of the Second Sino-Japanese War.  

Historical Study: Empire of Japan

So in the midst of all this Assassin's Creed gaming and classic film appreciation, I have also embarked on a major WWII phase. This is a historical event that I have always been very fascinated with and consider it to be the darkest period in human history. I often watch several WWII films and documentary series in the wintertime but this time I was recently inspired due to the Covid-19 pandemic as well as AC Unity's WWII missions. When I read or watch films pertaining to this historical era I am reminded how good we actually have it in comparison to those days.

After a couple weeks of watching my favorite WWII productions such as Saving Private Ryan, Band of Brothers, Schindler's List, Downfall, and The Pianist and some ones I hadn't seen before such as The Dirty Dozen, Bridge Too Far, and Dunkirk I came to the realization that I always gravitate to the European theater of the war. However WWII had two major theaters in Europe and the Pacific (which is now referred to as the Pacific War). I think it's commonly assumed that the Nazi's were the key antagonists of WWII and no doubt the most influential of the Axis Powers. However there can be no denying that the Japanese armies were just as ferocious and maniacal in war.

Thus in my recent efforts to expand my cultural awareness outside of Europe I am beginning a new study regarding WWII. The Pacific War is a branch of WWII that I often overlook and would like to make a deep dive into the historical context. I have planned to watch some of my favorite films pertaining to this event such as Pearl Harbor, Bridge on the River Kwai and The Pacific mini-series, as well as some films I haven't seen yet such as Empire of the Sun and The Thin Red Line. I also however would like to make a deep dive into the history of the Empire of Japan.

This post will be a study on the political rise of the Empire of Japan and their association with the Axis Powers. Just like I've done with studies on Mussolini's rise in Italy (Rise of Italian Facism) and Hitler's rise in Germany (Rise of Nazi Facism), I'd like to understand how Japan became such a totalitarian state by the 1930s. I intend to thus make a 2-part study regarding Imperial Japan, first with the establishment of the Empire of the Japan and it's military invasions, then a study on the timeline and key events of the Pacific War.

The Meiji Restoration

Now let me begin here stating that I know very little about Japanese history and culture. My general experience pertaining to Japan is sushi, Samurai Jack, and of course their involvement in World War II. I have however written once before about the history of Japan as I was quite intrigued by their incredible economic recovery post WWII (see Japan's Economic Resurgence). Japan to this day is one of the most prosperous world economies, no doubt thanks to the aid of American influence. However this is not a study of Japan's economic prowess yet rather the historical rise of Imperial Japan.

Most of my historical fascination comes from films that I watch, and when considering the Meiji Restoration the first film that comes to mind is The Last Samurai. This film depicts the rise of the Imperial government aided by America and the downfall of the ancient Samurai warriors. The movie gives a sad portrayal of the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion where the honorable Samurai were defeated by the vastly superior imperial armies. However the greater takeaway from this film was the westernization and industrialization Japan had embarked on due to their influence from America.

The fervor for Japanese reform had begun throughout the 1850s with fears that if they did not modernize they would soon become a colony of China or Russia. In an effort to strengthen their economy Japan underwent a major government renovation which essentially restored an imperial rule. In 1868 the reformation began with the Charter Oath that declared Emperor Meiji as the new ruler of Japan. The Boshin War of 1868-1869 brought an abrupt end to the shogunate government and was replaced by the new imperial court. The newly established imperial government was more-so a symbolic gesture, while the real intention was a rapid boom of industrialization. This was successfully achieved thru new business partnerships with America. It was this point that Japan became the nation it is today with it's iconic "red sun" flag and their "yen" currency.

Meija Era of Modernization

In just 25 years Japan had quickly arisen as one of the top economies in the world and a new power in East Asia. The social order also underwent a major change, driven by the government's propaganda a new culture of westernization changed many of Japan's old customs. The greatest affected by this social change was the samurai noble classes who sought to restore the traditional heritage of Japan however were eventually ousted by the modernized imperial armies. Every aspect of Japanese culture was westernized during this era from their economy, military, education, fashion, arts, politics, and so forth.

By the turn of the 20th century the Empire of Japan was prepared to declare their military superiority in the region of Eastern Asia. The first of these military disputes began in 1894 with the 1st Sino-Japanese War. This war was waged by the Japanese armies against the Chinese Qing Dynasty for influence over the Korea peninsula. Within a year the modern Japanese army was able to easily defeat the Chinese army and gain control of Korea. Several years later the Qing Dynasty suffered another devastating military defeat at the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 at the hands of an alliance of western powers including Japan. These humiliating defeats eventually gave way to the downfall of the Qing Dyansty and the Xinhai Revolution of China in 1911.

While China underwent political disorder, Japan continued to thrive in eastern Asia. However their recent surge in global power did not go unnoticed most so by their neighbors to the north, the Russian Empire. By 1904 their newly acquired territory of Manchuria (in the northeastern region of China) became contested by Russia and led to the Russo-Japanese War. This became a significant victory for the Empire of Japan, that caught the world's attention as it was the first time an Asian nation had ever defeated a European nation. The Empire of Japan had become the new dominant power in Asia, while both China and Russia underwent political revolutions. 

Taisho Era of Democracy

Following the death of Emperor Meiji in 1912 his son Taisho became emperor of Japan. With the onset of WWI, Japan joined their allied forces in the west against the Central Powers led by Germany. Japan declared war on Germany with a goal to further their territory in China and the Pacific. While they were able to acquire new territory and make new demands on China, things grew more complicated with the onset of the Chinese and Bolshevik Revolutions. The United States began to fear the new growth of communism in the region and began to call upon their Japanese allies to aid them in this endeavor.

During it's foreign military engagements the Empire of Japan had managed to stabilize their democratic system during this time. In the likes of most western governments, Japan had established a democratic government with political parties, a prime minister, and a body of parliament. This made it all the more clear to the world that it's newly established title of Emperor was more-so a symbolic gesture with minimal powers, no different than that of the monarchy of Britain. Part of the reason for this sudden shift of power was due to emperor Taisho often being sick. He died of a heart attack at the young age of 47 and was seceded by his son Hirohito who became Emperor Showa in 1926.

Showa Era of Military Expansionism

Now one of the biggest questions I have in regards to the Empire of Japan and it's role in WWII is why it turned against the United States. Consider that the United States played an influential role in modernizing the country and they served together as allies during WWI. However by the mid 1920s public opinion throughout Japan began to shift against the United States for various reasons. Much of this had to do with American limitations on Japanese warships in the Pacific as well as the Japanese Expulsion Act of 1924. This constant foreign intervention from the west began the seeds of a new fervor of nationalism.

The situation only intensified with the global economic collapse of the Great Depression. In the likes of many other European nations such as Italy, Germany, Spain, and the Soviet Union, Japan turned towards a totalitarian state. A new ideal of fascist militarism began to spread from influential leaders such as General Sadao Araki and the author Shumei Okawa. The new movement became known as Showa Nationalism and essentially mixed ancient Japanese customs with right wing fascist ideals. Emperor Showa was merely a figurehead observer in this sudden surge of militarism, industrialization, and expansionism.

During this time thru the use of propaganda the Japanese public underwent an extreme patriotic fervor, known as the National Spiritual Mobilization movement. The intentions of this public movement was to dominate the Asian region and glorify the land of Japan in the name of their sacred emperor. Their new targets were against capitalism and communism, mostly directed at China. They began their military aggression with an invasion of Manchuria in 1931. In 1936 Japan signed a new treaty with Nazi Germany against the ideals of Communism known as the Anti-Comintern Pact. However this agreement came into conflict when Germany signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union a year later.

In July of 1937 the Marco Polo Bridge Incident occurred as a minor battle between Chinese and Imperial Japanese forces. This minor confrontation was considered the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War by which Japan invaded China shortly after. It also often considered a start to WWII (rather than the Nazi's invasion of Germany two years later) since the Sino-Japenese War became merged with WWII. In 1940 Japan signed the Triparte Pact with Germany and Italy to establish the Axis Powers and thus establish a new order. This new alliance was in opposition to the western capitalist powers such as the United States, Britain, and France; as well as the communist powers such as China and the Soviet Union. A year later in 1941 at the urging of Germany, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor as a preemptive strike. Thus began a two front war for Japan against China on their eastern front and against the United States on their western front in the Pacific.