Friday, May 2, 2025

Religious Study: History of the Papacy

With the recent death of Pope Francis, I have been suddenly pulled to a fascination with the Papal history. It's strange actually I was watching the documentary Pope: The Most Powerful Man in History just the day before Pope Francis died. I saw this as the closure to my religious biblical phase of the past couple as Easter came to a close. It's also very strange that Pope Francis died the day after Easter. He was in poor health for the last couple years, however still made a public appearance on Easter Sunday. He died on April 21st at the age of 88 years and served as the Bishop of Rome for 12 years. I liked him dearly because he was the first South American pope, from Argentina, a progressive minded leader, but also a sincere humanitarian.  

His ascension to the papacy was almost unprecedented in 2013, when his predecessor Pope Benedict XVI resigned from the seat due to declining health. He became the first pope to renunciate in nearly 600 years since Pope Gregory did in 1415 (due to the Western Schism). Following his resignation Pope Francis was chosen by the Papal Conclave. I remember hearing of the news while I was doing courier work, and was genuinely surprised and happy that the first Latin American pope was selected. His ideology was one of leftist politics, against capitalism, in support of the lower classes, and also social causes such as more rights for immigrants and homosexuals. His progressive agenda was a sharp contrast to the ultra-conservative policies of Pope Benedict.

So now we're currently in an interim period without a pope. The funeral of the Francis just occurred this weekend, and will then be followed by nine days of mourning before the Papal Conclave begins. I honestly have no idea what to expect, but will try to highlight some potential candidates from research. However what I really want to do here is establish a brief historical timeline of the papacy. I know of the most famous popes beginning with Saint Peter, Pope Gregory, Pope Urban, Pope Julius, Pope Alexander VI, Pope Pius, and Pope John Paul II. I remember Pope John Paul II was very popular during my childhood years, and especially admired by my grandma. I'm not quire sure Benedict or Francis reached the popularity of Pope John Paul II, but he also was pope for 26 years. 

I find the pompous of the Catholic Church and Vatican City to be so rich with history. I love the lavish ceremonies, the architecture, the intricate robes and wardrobe, the relics, the service, the music, the liturgy, the preaching, the artistic paintings, and just the tradition of it all. It is the most popular and oldest religions in the world (next to the Jewish faith). I feel the Catholic Church, Vatican City, and the office of the papacy is truly regarded as our greatest beacon of light. To see so many world leaders and followers come together for Francis' funeral is truly sensation. And I believe the pope has played a crucial role in world history since the church was founded. Which is why I'd like to follow the succession of the last 2000 years of the papacy, the rock of the Catholic Church. Some of this will overlap with my 6-part study on Christian history that I wrote in 2012 (see History of Christianity) however this will put more of a focus on the leaders of the papacy.

The Church that Peter Built

Following the death of Jesus Christ, his apostles began their own ministry by spreading his word. This included Peter, James, John, Paul the Apostle, and various others that devoutly followed his teachings. Their travels and letters throughout Europe and Asia served as the early development of the Christian Church. This period (captured in the New Testament: Acts of the Apostles) is believed to have lasted from 30-64 AD, by which all were eventually executed by the Roman Empire as martyrs. Although the office of the pope was not officially established for many years later, Peter is regarded as the Prince of the Apostles and for this reason he is recognized as the first pope 

The Primacy of Peter pertains to his leadership over the other apostles in this defining development of the Christian Faith. He was considered the most devoted of Jesus Christ's followers and their most influential leader. He was also considered a unifier of the branching interpretations, and likely helped organize the foundational framework of the Catholic Church. For this reason he is granted the title of preeminence, with authority delegated from Jesus to rule over the entire church. According to Catholic tradition he received the keys of the Kingdom of heaven, which served as a metaphor for establishing the office of papal authority. 

Early Church Fathers

During these early years of development for the Catholic Church, much of the theology was still being organized. The teachings of Jesus Christ were incorporated into doctrine by his apostles and devout followers. These influential theologians, known as the Church Fathers, helped organize the doctrine of the church, in various writings. Some of these writings are considered Sacred Tradition such as the Ante-Nicene-Fathers, the Nicene Fathers, and the Post Nicene Fathers. The generation of leaders after the age of the apostles are referred to as the Apostolic Fathers. Pope Clement I (88 to 97 AD) is considered the first of these men, who was personally ordained by Saint Peter during his lifetime.

Pope Clement was one of the early significant leaders of the Catholic Church helping bring unity to Christian schisms amongst the Corinthians. He wrote one of the first Epistles as a church father, letters of the apostles that are part of the New Testament biblical canon. Other prominent Apostolic Fathers during this time included Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna, Papias of Heirapolis, and Quadratus of Athens. The men were merely considered bishops however and not granted the title of pope as was Clement. During this time also known as the Patristic Era, the church began to establish itself as the state church of the Roman Empire.

The Church of Rome

It was under the reign of Constantine the Great from 306-337 AD that the Catholic Church became centralized in Rome. The First Council of Nicaea occurred during this period in 325 AD, and served as the first official council of the Catholic Church. It was attended by nearly 200 bishops from Europe and Asia to deliberate over various theologian concepts. Many key concepts of the practice were agreed upon during this assembly such as the divine nature of Jesus and his relationship to God, the observance of Easter, as well as the establishment of the Nicene Creed and canon law. However it's interesting to note that the pope of the time, Saint Sylvester, did not attend the council due to old age. 

In 330 the capital of the Roman Empire transferred to the city of Constantinople where the seat of the Catholic Church became further administered. It is believed that Constantine the Great sought to hand over total authority to the Pope, however this never occurred. Constantine did however completely change the influence of the catholic church thru law and many great constructions of basilicas. In 401 Pope Leo became the first pope to be labeled as "Great" for his theological contributions to the church (also regarded as a Doctor of the Church). This included strong beliefs that the divine nature of Jesus Christ was human and god. Perhaps his greatest state contribution came in persuading Atilla the Hun to not invade Italy. 

Medieval Papacy

During the decline of the Roman Empire the papacy came under the influence of the Germanic Ostrogothic Kingdom from 493 to 537 AD. During this time a first major schism began to occur where two popes were chosen in 498. Furthermore hints of corruption and simony began to infiltrate the papal institution. Theodoric the Great did not interfere in papal matters, however when Justinian reconquered Rome, he became the first Roman Emperor to appoint a pope in 537 AD. From this point on the papacy came under the influence of the Byzantine Empire for two centuries, in which many of their leaders were chosen by the emperor. 

Pope Martin I "The Confessor" (649-655), became the first pope to question the influence of Byzantine authority into church affairs. During this time Rome became a melting pot of Western and Eastern Christian traditions. Pope Gregory I the Great (590-604) played a pivotal role in establishing papal authority thru new administration and weeding out the corruption and influence of the monarchy. He made great contributions to the church in theological writings and helped establish a new calendar and forms of liturgy now known as the Gregorian Calendar and the Gregorian Chants. He also sent missionaries to England to convert the pagans of the north. 

In 756 Pope Stephen II established the Papal States in Italy as it's own sovereign territory free from government control. However they still needed military support, which came from the Frankish Kingdom under King Pepin III. Rome became the new center of these Papal States for the next 1100 years, finally with it's own administration. In 800 AD, Charlemagne further supported the papal states, with the request from Pope Leo III who crowned him as first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Thus while the papacy had it's governing freedom it still had to swear allegiance to the Holy Roman Empire for financial and military support. From 904 to 1048 an age of corruption undertook the papacy ruled by aristocratic Roman nobles, a family known as the Theophyclati.   

The Great Schism and the Crusades

In 1076 a conflict arose between the Church and the Holy Roman Empire, known as the Investiture Controversary, regarding who had the authority to appoint bishops. The controversary began with Pope Gregory VII and went on for nearly 50 years. One of the most notable events of the controversary was when Emperor Henry IV made a walk of atonement to submit to Pope Gregory VII, known as the Road to Canossa. The dispute was finally resolved in 1122 where Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V came to a compromise. In The Concordat of Worms the authority to appoint bishops remained with the church, however they were mandated to sweat allegiance to the crown.    

In 1054 after many years of theological disputes, the eastern church of the Byzantine Empire broke away from the western church of the Holy Roman Empire in what is known as the Great East-West Schism. The schism became official when Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople ordered the immediate closure of all Roman churches in the East. Pope Leo IX responded by excommunicating Cerularius and all those who did not accept the pope as the supreme religious authority. This marked the independence of the Eastern Orthodox Church, no longer swearing fealty to the pope of the Catholic Church. Several differences of Roman Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church are the recognition of the Holy Spirit as an embodiment of God and not Jesus; the importance of Mary, also Eastern Orthodox clergy are allowed to marry. Despite the break-up both factions of the Christian church remained peaceful and diplomatic for the most part. 

The dispute was however incorporated into the Holy Crusades from 1095-1291. Initiated by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, he called the Catholic faith to arms, to reclaim the holy land of Jerusalem under the occupancy of the Seljuk Turks. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the city of Jerusalem was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in 638 AD and remained in Muslim control for 450 years until the first crusade. This was also an intent to reunite the Roman Church with Eastern Orthodox against the growing presence of Muslims in Turkey. Despite their victory in Jerusalem at the First Crusade, the dispute with the Muslims carried on for many more years. The tension between the Western church and the eastern church also reached a boiling point at the Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. 

In 1257 AD due to political instability in Rome, the Pope moved his office away from Rome and into various other parts of Italy. This period known as the age of wandering popes lasted for nearly 100 years, where the papacy sought to stay away from the corrupted aristocrats of Rome. During this time the Papal Conclave tradition began in 1276 by which cardinals gathered to elect the next pope. A string of seven French popes then came to power from 1309-1377 known as the Avignon Papacy, under the heavy influence of the French King. This eventually lead to a Western Schism in 1378 where the French Monarchy sought to establish the papacy in France rather then Rome. Pope Gregory XI however refused to stay in Avignon and returned the papal office to Rome. The dispute lasted from 1378-1417, in which three popes reigned at a time; one from Avignon, one from Pisa, and one from Rome. However in 1414 the Council of Constance was arranged to bring an end to the antipopes and reunify the papacy in Rome by which Pope Martin V became the undisputed pope of the Catholic Church.

Renaissance Papacy

During the early 1400s at the onset of the Renaissance the papacy once again became a driving force in domestic and global politics. However it also became influenced by corruption, nepotism, and even simony (the selling of sacramental services, positions, and items). Powerful Italian families such as the Medici, the Borgias, and the fella Rovere were able to secure control of the papacy thru financial and political influence. Also during this time some of the popes had mistresses and even children, such as Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) one of the most controversial popes in history. Aside from his many mistresses, nepotism, and corruption he famously executed his greatest critic Savonarola. His corruption of power is often credited as the driving force of the Protestant Reformation that occurred in the years to come.

One of the next most famous popes during the Renaissance was Pope Julius II from 1503-1513. He was regarded as the Warrior Pope for his use of a papal military to increase the territory of the papal states during the Italian Wars. He oversaw the establishment of Catholicism in the New World of Latin America. He is also most famous for established the Swiss Guard, the Vatican Museums, the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica, as well as the commission of Michaelangelo's famous paintings in the Sistine Chapel. Aside from these great contributions however he also partook in corruption by allowing indulgences (a way to buy forgiveness of sins) which were used for some of his more ambitious projects.    

Pope Leo X was another example of a corrupt Renaissance pope put in power by the Medici family from 1513 to 1521. He also pushed heavily for indulgences to fund the various papal wars and construction projects. Leo famously excommunicated Martin Luther in 1520 with a papal bull. During the War of the League of Cognac (1526-1530) between France and the Holy Roman Empire, the city of Rome was sacked by mutinous soldiers in 1527 seeking pillage and plunder. Pope Clement VII was forced to go into hiding in the Castel Sant Angelo while the Swiss Guard was obliterated. Although order was eventually re-stablished this marked a sudden power shift, by which the papacy lost much of it's authority to the Holy Roman Empire. The Catholic Church further lost influence when England broke away in 1534 which led to a series of Protestant Wars of Religion. 

The Catholic Reformation

As a response to the growing Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church organized the Council of Trent from 1545 to 1563 led by Pope Paul III. The Council worked to counter the Protestant Reformation and restructure the Catholic Church. The major goal was to weed out the corruption that had taken hold during the Renaissance. It also sought to strengthen their doctrines, leadership, education, and overall internal structure. Jesuits became established as the new religious order to travel and reeducate the world on Catholic principles. Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590) also played a major role in the Catholic Reformation by rooting out the corruption, reforming the church administration, as well as renovating the city of Rome. 

The renovation and reformation resumed during the 1600s in what is known as the Baroque Papacy. This included great works of construction and art as a means to glorify the city of Rome as well as the papacy as the central authority of the church. Despite all these great constructions projects, Rome still lost significant pull throughout Europe, due to various religious wars such as the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). During this time new off-shoots of the Catholic religion were recognized such as Calvinism and Lutheranism. By the end of the 1600s the papacy was no longer a driving force in political affairs and was forced to take a spectator role. France and England emerged as the new key players in Europe, free from papal influence.   

The influence of the papacy was further challenged throughout the 1700s due to the rise of the Enlightenment. New scientific and philosophical breakthroughs began to question the pope's divine power, and even the existence of a god. This was most notably the case during the French Revolution, where Pope Pius VI was imprisoned by French troops for condemning the Revolution and it's radical ideals. During the early 1800s the Papal States came under French control for some time by which Pope Pius VII handed the crown to Napoleon as Emperor of France. The papal states were later restored their independent power in 1814 at the Congress of Vienna.  

The End of the Papal States

From 1846 to 1878 Pope Pius IX served the longest reign ever as pope for 32 years. He oversaw a period of political instability throughout the European Revolutions of 1848 which forced him to flee Rome during the brief Roman Republic in 1849. He then ushered in a new agenda of strict conservatism against progressive ideals of secularization and separating the church from the state. He also presented new theological dogma pertaining papal infallibility as well as the importance of Mary and her Immaculate Conception (a life free form sin). However he also resisted the national social movement of Risorgimento, also known as the Unification of Italy, that began in 1861. The intent of the movement was to unite the various states and kingdoms throughout Italy into one Kingdom. 

In 1870 this national movement achieved it's goal by capturing Rome from the Papal States, then bringing an official end to the Papal States. Rome thus became the new capital of the unified Italian Kingdom taking away the pope's political power over the city. However Pope Pius IX was defiant and did not recognize this claim, yet chose to remain in Rome as a Prisoner of the Vatican. The next few popes to follow also remained in this situation, refusing to accept the newly established Italian state as their political authority. Pope Leo XIII oversaw the third longest reign as pope for 25 years and pushed for further theological concepts of the rosary, the scapular, and the importance of Mother Mary. 

Second Vatican Council 

In 1929 Pope Pius XI was able to achieve a diplomatic solution regarding their political status in Rome with Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini. The Lateran Treaty established the Vatican City as the new sovereign territory of the papacy, free from Italian administration. This was fittingly located amidst all the great Catholic sites such as St. Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, and the Vatican Museums. During this key turning point of independence the Papacy still found itself burdened with the growing influence of Facsist dictators Mussolini and Hitler. Both Pope Pius XI and Pius XII spoke out against the injustice committed during WWII especially the Holocaust.  

From 1962 to 1965 Pope John XXIII called upon major reform in the Catholic Church as an effort to modernize their practice. This brought forth significant reform in the liturgy, moving away from the strict Latin language to the local language. It also opened the door for religious freedom and tolerance of other religions (most notably the Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches). During this period the Catholic Church began to shift itself as more concerned about humanitarian issues (such as peace and poverty) rather that political or state affairs. Pope Paul VI reigned from 1963 to 1978, and was strongly opposed to the Vietnam War, birth control, and oversaw many reforms of Vatican II such as declaring Mary as the Mother of the Church.

In 1978 Pope John Paul II became the first elected non-Italian pope since 1523 and was a strong advocate against Communism. He was an extremely popular pope due to his charity missions as well as his extensive travel, visiting 129 countries throughout his reign (the most traveled pope in history). He was succeeded by Pope Benedict XVI in 2005, the first German pope since 1058. With his conservative approach, Pope Benedict returned some of the traditional aspects of the church. He became the first pope to renounce the papacy since 1415, due to aging health issues. He thus received the title of pope emeritus (honorary pope), when Pope Francis was elected in 2013. Pope Francis ushered in an era of progressive agenda, tolerant towards the LGBT community, and also spreading the cardinal conclave beyond Europe and into other regions.  

Vatican City

The headquarters of the papacy, the curia, and the Catholic Church are located in a very small district within Rome, Italy known as Vatican City. It is it's own independent sovereign state with it's own government, a monarchy that is governed by the pope. With a 2.2 mile border and a population of 882 it is the smallest country in the world. However it is also the most historic and visited regions in the world. That is because of it's rich collection of architecture, libraries, museums, sculptures, and classical art. I was fortunate to visit this location in 2017 with my brother and was very awe-struck by the scale of classical renaissance art on display. 

The impressive St. Peter's Basilica towers over the region, overlooking St. Peter's Square, the Bernini Colonnade (with it's 284 columns), and the Vatican obelisk. Inside St. Peter's Basilica is an impressive dome filled with Renaissance art such as Michelangelo's' Pieta as well as Bernini's Baldachino. Behind the Basilica is a courtyard with administrative pontificate buildings. To the east of the Vatican is the impressive Sistine Chapel, adorned with famous paintings by Michelangelo and Raphael. Nearby is the massive Vatican Museum, one of the largest most visited museums in the world. It houses many artistic treasures such as the statue of Emperor Augustus and many works by Raphael, Caravaggio, and Michelangelo. Next to the museum is the home of the pope, known as the Apostolic Palace (it is the White House of Vatican City).

The region is located on Vatican Hill and once was the location of Roman Emperor Nero's circus. The famous Obelisk was the first major landmark built in 40 AD. Many Christians were persecuted in this region, most notably Saint Peter who was crucified upside down. Rightfully so it became the holy sacred grounds of the Catholics and churches and shrines became erected on the spot. The First St. Peter's Basilica was constructed in 318AD by Constantine the Great built over the tomb of Saint Peter. It was later demolished and replaced by the current basilica in 1505-1626 (a golden renaissance for the Catholic Church). The Sistine Chapel was also completed during the Renaissance, commissioned by Pope Julius II. For most the papal history, this region was a part of greater Rome, ruled by the Papal States. However in 1929, due to the unification of Italy, this new state was formed to give the Catholic Church it's own administrative government. So while the buildings and art are quite ancient, the city itself is still quite young.

Interesting Facts about the Papacy

  • There have been a total of 266 popes.
  • The pope is also known as the Bishop of Rome, the Vicar of Christ, the Supreme Pontiff, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, the Patriarch of the West, and the Primate of Italy
  • The longest reign as pope
    • Pope Pius IX (1846-1878): 31 years
    • Pope John Paul II (1978-2005): 26 years
    • Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903): 25 years
    • Pope Pius VI (1775-1799): 24 years
  • The shortest reign as pope
    • Pope Urban VII (1590): 13 days
    • Pope Boniface VI (896): 16 days
    • Pope Celestine IV (1241): 20 days
  • The youngest pope ever to be elected was Pope Benedict IX (1032) at age 18
  • The oldest pope to die in office was Pope Leo XIII (1903) at age 93
  • Most Frequent Papal Names
    • John (23)
    • Gregory (16)
    • Benedict (15)
    • Clement (14)
    • Innocent (13)
    • Leo (13)
    • Pius (12)
    • Stephen (9)
    • Boniface (8)
    • Urban (8)
  • There have been approximately 40 antipopes (with false claims to the papacy)
  • The longest conclave in history lasted nearly 3 years from 1268-1271.
  • 81 popes have been canonized into saints
  • A newly elected pope receives a golden ring known as the Fisherman's Ring, which must be destroyed upon his death. 
  • The Swiss Guard was established in 1506 as an elite unit of Swiss male citizens between 19 and 30 that protect the pope. 
  • Popes by Nationality:
    • Italy (216)
    • France (16)
    • Germany (6)
    • Syria (5)
    • Greece (4)   

List of Popes

  1. St. Peter (30-64): Judea, Israel
  2. St. Linus (64-76): Tuscany, Roman Empire, Italy 
  3. St. Anacletus (76-88): Athens, Greece
  4. St. Clemente I (88-97): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  5. St. Evaristus (97-105): Bethlehem, Judea, Israel
  6. St. Alexander (105-115): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  7. St. Sixtus I (115-125): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  8. St. Telesphorus (125-136): Terra Nova, Roman Empire, Italy
  9. St. Hyginus (136-140): Athens, Greece
  10. St. Pius I (140-155): Aquileia, Roman Empire, Italy
  11. St. Anciectus (155-166): Emesa, Syria
  12. St. Soter (167-175): Fundi, Roman Empire, Italy
  13. St. Eleutherius (174-189): Nicopolis, Epirus, Greece
  14. St. Victor I (189-198): Libya, Africa
  15. St. Zephyrinus (198-217): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  16. Natalius (198-199): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
  17. St. Callixtus I (218-222): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  18. St. Hippolytus (217-235): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
  19. St. Urban I (222-230): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  20. St. Pontian (230-235): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  21. St. Anterus (235-236): Petelia, Roman Empire, Italy
  22. St. Fabian (236-250): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  23. St. Cornelius (251-253): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  24. Novatian (200-220) Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
  25. St. Lucius I (253-254): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  26. St. Stephen (254-257): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  27. St. Sixtus II (257-258): Athens, Greece
  28. St. Dionysius (259-268): Terra Nova, Roman Empire, Italy
  29. St. Felix I (269-274): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  30. St. Eutychian (275-283): Luna, Roman Empire, Italy
  31. St. Caius (283-296): Salona, Roman Empire, Italy
  32. St. Marcellinus (296-304): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  33. St. Marcellus I (308-309): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  34. St. Eusebius (309-310): Achaea, Greece
  35. St. Miltiades (311-314): North Africa
  36. St. Sylvester I (314-335): Calabria, Roman Empire, Italy
  37. St. Mark (336-336): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  38. St. Julius I (337-352): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  39. Liberius (352-366): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  40. Felix II (355-365) Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
  41. St. Damasus I (366-384): Lusitania, Portugal
  42. Ursinus (366-367): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
  43. St. Siricius (384-399): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  44. St. Anastasius (399-401): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  45. St. Innocent I (401-417): Albanum, Roman Empire, Italy
  46. St. Zosimus (417-418): Messurga, Roman Empire, Italy
  47. Eulalius (418-419): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
  48. St. Boniface (418-422): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  49. St. Celestine I (422-432): Campania, Roman Empire, Italy
  50. St. Sixtus III (432-440): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
  51. St. Leo I the Great (440-461): Etruria, Roman Empire, Italy
  52. St. Hilarius (461-468): Sardina, Roman Empire, Italy
  53. St. Simplicius (468-483): Tibur, Western Roman Empire, Italy
  54. St. Felix III (483-492): Roma, Western Roman Empire, Italy
  55. St. Gelasius I (492-496): Mons Ferratus, Algeria
  56. Anastasius II (496-498): Roma, Western Roman Empire, Italy
  57. St. Symmachus (498-514): Sardinia, Western Roman Empire, Italy
  58. Laurentius (498-508): Roma, Western Roman Empire, Italy
  59. St. Hormisdas (514-523): Frusino, Western Roman Empire, Italy
  60. St. John I (523-526): Sena Ilulia, Western Roman Empire, Italy
  61. St. Felix IV (526-530): Samnium, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
  62. Boniface II (530-532): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
  63. Dioscorus (530-530): Alexandria, Egypt (antipope)
  64. John II (533-535): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
  65. St. Agapetus I (535-536): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
  66. St. Silverius (536-537): Cicanum, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
  67. Vigilius (537-555): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
  68. Pelagius I (556-561): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
  69. John III (561-574): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
  70. Benedict I (575-579): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
  71. Pelagius II (579-590): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
  72. St. Gregory I the Great (590-604): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  73. Sabinian (604-606): Blera, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  74. Boniface III (607): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  75. St. Boniface IV (608-615): Marsica, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  76. St. Adeodatus I (615-618): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  77. Boniface V (619-625): Neapolis, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  78. Honorius I (625-638): Ceperanum, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  79. Severinus (640): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  80. John IV (640-624): Iadera, Eastern Roman Empire, Crotia
  81. Theodore I (642-649): Jerusalem, Eastern Roman Empire, Israel
  82. St. Martin I (649-655): Tuder, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  83. St. Eugene I (654-657): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  84. St. Vitalian (657-672): Signia, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  85. Adeodatus II (672-676): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  86. Donus (676-678): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  87. St. Agatho (678-681): Panormus, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  88. St. Leo II (682-683): Aydonum, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  89. St. Benedict II (684-685): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  90. John V (685-686): Antiochia, Eastern Roman Empire, Syria
  91. Conon (686-687): Thracia, Eastern Roman Empire, Bulgaria
  92. St. Sergius I (687-701): Palermo, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  93. John VI (701-705): Ephesus, Eastern Roman Empire, Turkey
  94. John VII (705-707): Rossanum, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  95. Sisinius (708): Rashidun Caliphate, Syria
  96. Constantine (708-715): Umayyad Caliphate, Syria
  97. St. Gregory II (715-731): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  98. St. Gregory III (731-741): Umayyad Caliphate, Syria
  99. St. Zachary (741-752): Calabria, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  100. Stephen II (752): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire Italy - 3 days. Died before taking office
  101. Stephen II (752-757): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  102. St. Paul I (757-767): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  103. Stephen III (768-772): Syracuse, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  104. Adrian I (772-795) Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  105. St. Leo III (795-816): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  106. Stephen IV (816-817): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  107. St. Paschal I (817-824): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  108. Eugene II (824-827): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  109. Valentine (827): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  110. Gregory IV (827-844): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  111. Sergius II (844-847): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  112. St. Leo IV (847-855): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  113. Benedict III (855-858): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  114. St. Nicholas I the Great (858-867): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  115. Adrian II (867-872): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  116. John VIII (872-882): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  117. Marinus I (882-884): Gallese, Papal States, Italy
  118. St. Adrian III (884-885): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  119. Stephen V (885-891): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  120. Formosus (891-896): Ostia, Papal States, Italy
  121. Boniface VI (896): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  122. Stephen VI (896-897): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  123. Romanus (897): Gallese, Papal States, Italy
  124. Theodore II (897): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  125. John IX (898-900): Tivoli, Papal States, Italy
  126. Benedict IV (900-903): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  127. Leo V (903): Ardea, Papal States, Italy
  128. Christopher (903-904): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  129. Sergius III (904-911): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  130. Anastasius III (911-913): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  131. Lando (913-914): Sabina, Papal States, Italy
  132. John X (914-928): Tossignano, Papal States, Italy
  133. Leo VI (928): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  134. Stephen VII (929-931): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  135. John XI (931-935): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  136. Leo VII (936-939): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  137. Stephen VIII (939-942): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  138. Marinus II (942-946): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  139. Agapetus II (946-955): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  140. John XII (955-963): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  141. Leo VIII (963-964): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
  142. John XII (964): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  143. Benedict V (964): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  144. Leo VIII (964-965): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  145. John XIII (965-972): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  146. Benedict VI (973-974): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  147. Boniface VII (974): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
  148. Benedict VII (974-983): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  149. John XIV (983-984): Pavia, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  150. Boniface VII (984-985): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
  151. John XV (985-996): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  152. Gregory V (996-999): Stainach, Holy Roman Empire, Germany
  153. John XVI (997-998): Rossanum, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
  154. Sylvester II (999-1003): Belliac, France
  155. John XVII (1003): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  156. John XVIII (1003-1009): Rapagnano, Papal States, Italy
  157. Sergius IV (1009-1012): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  158. Benedict VIII (1012-1024): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  159. John XIX (1024-1032): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  160. Benedict IX (1032-1044): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  161. Sylvester III (1045): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  162. Benedict IX (1045): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  163. Gregory VI (1045-1046): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  164. Clement II (1046-1047): Hornburg, Holy Roman Empire, Germany
  165. Benedict IX (1047-1048): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  166. Damasus II (1048): Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire, Germany
  167. St. Leo IX (1049-1054): Eguisheim, Holy Roman Empire, France
  168. Victor II (1055-1057): Swabia, Holy Roman Empire, Germany
  169. Stephen IX (1057-1058): Lorraine, Holy Roman Empire, France
  170. Benedict X (1058-1059): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
  171. Nicholas II (1058-1061): Chateau de Chevron, Holy Roman Empire, France
  172. Honorius II (1061-1072): Verona, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  173. Alexander II (1061-1073): Baggio, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  174. St. Gregory VII (1073-1085): Sovana, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  175. Clement III (1080-1100): Ravenna, Holy Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
  176. Victor III (1086-1087): Duchy of Benevento, Italy
  177. Urban II (1088-1099): Chatillon sur-Marne, France
  178. Paschal II (1099-1118): Bleda, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  179. Theodoric (1100-1101): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
  180. Adalbert (1101-1102): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
  181. Sylvester IV (1105-1111): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
  182. Gelasius II (1118-1119): Duchy of Gaeta, Italy
  183. Gregory VIII (1118-1121): Limousin, France (antipope)
  184. Callixtus II (1119-1124): Quingey, Holy Roman Empire, France 
  185. Honorius II (1124-1130): Flagnano, Papal States, Italy
  186. Innocent II (1130-1143): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  187. Anacletus II (1130-1138): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  188. Victor IV (1138): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  189. Celestine II (1143-1144): Rome, Papal States, Italy 
  190. Lucius II (1144-1145): Bologna, Papal States, Italy
  191. Eugene III (1145-1153): Pisa, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  192. Anastasius IV (1153 - 1154): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  193. Adrian IV (1154 - 1159): Langley Abbot's, Kingdom of England
  194. Alexander III (1159 - 1181): Siena, Italy
  195. Lucius III (1181 - 1185): Lucca, Italy
  196. Urban III (1185 - 1187): Milan, Italy
  197. Gregory VIII (1187): Benevento, Papal States, Italy
  198. Clement III (1187 - 1191): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  199. Celestine III (1191-1198): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  200. Innocent III (1198 - 1216): Gavignano, Papal States, Italy
  201. Honorius III (1216 - 1227): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  202. Gregory IX (1227- 1241): Anagni, Papal States, Italy
  203. Celestine IV (1241): Milan, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  204. Innocent IV (1243-1254): Genoa, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  205. Alexander IV (1254 -1261): Jenne, Papal States, Italy
  206. Urban IV (1261-1264): Troyes, France
  207. Clement IV (1265-1268): Saint-Gilles, France
  208. Interregnum (3 year period due to deadlock in conclave vote)
  209. Gregory X (1271-1276): Piacenza, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  210. Innocent V (1276): Tarnentaise, France
  211. Adrian V (1276): Genoa, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  212. John XXI (1276-1277): Lisbon, Portugal
  213. Nicholas III (1277-1280): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  214. Martin IV (1281-1285): Brie-Comte-Robert, France
  215. Honorius IV (1285-1287): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  216. Nicholas IV (1288-1292): Ascoli Piceno, Papal States, Italy
  217. St. Celestine V (1294): Isernia, Italy
  218. Boniface VIII (1294-1303): Anagni, Papal States, Italy
  219. Bl. Benedict XI (1303-1304): Treviso, Papal States, Italy
  220. Clement V (1305-1314): Villandraut, France
  221. John XXII (1316-1334): Cahors, France
  222. Benedict XII (1334-1342): Saverdun, France
  223. Clement VI (1342-1352): Maumont, France
  224. Innocent VI (1352-1362): Beyssac, France
  225. Bl. Urban V (1362-1370): Grisac, France
  226. Gregory XI (1370-1378): Maumont, France
  227. Urban VI (1378-1389): Naples, Italy
  228. Boniface IX (1389-1404): Naples, Italy
  229. Innocent VII (1404-1406): Sulmona, Italy
  230. Gregory XII (1406-1415): Venice, Italy
  231. Martin V (1417-1431): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  232. Eugene IV (1431-1447): Venice, Itay
  233. Nicholas V (1447-1455): Sarzana, Italy
  234. Callixtus III (1455-1458): Játiva, Spain
  235. Pius II (1458-1464): Corsignano, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  236. Paul II (1464-1471): Venice, Italy
  237. Sixtus IV (1471-1484): Celle Ligure, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  238. Innocent VIII (1484-1492): Genoa, Italy
  239. Alexander VI (1492-1503): Játiva, Spain
  240. Pius III (1503): Siena, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  241. Julius II (1503-1513): Albisola, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  242. Leo X (1513-1521): Florence, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  243. Adrian VI (1522-1523): Utrecht, Netherlands
  244. Clement VII (1523-1534): Florence, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  245. Paul III (1534-1549): Canino, Papal States, Italy
  246. Julius III (1550-1555): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  247. Marcellus II (1555): Montefano, Papal States, Italy
  248. Paul IV (1555-1559): Naples, Italy
  249. Pius IV (1559-1565): Milan, Italy
  250. St. Pius V (1566-1572): Bosco Marengo, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  251. Gregory XIII (1572-1585): Bologna, Italy
  252. Sixtus V (1585-1590): Grottammare, Papal States, Italy
  253. Urban VII (1590): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  254. Gregory XIV (1590-1591): Cremona, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  255. Innocent IX (1591): Bologna, Italy
  256. Clement VIII (1592-1605): Fano, Papal States, Italy
  257. Leo XI (1605): Florence, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
  258. Paul V (1605-1621): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  259. Gregory XV (1621-1623): Bologna, Italy
  260. Urban VIII (1623-1644): Florence, Italy
  261. Innocent X (1644-1655): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  262. Alexander VII (1655-1667): Siena, Italy
  263. Clement IX (1667-1669): Pistoia, Italy
  264. Clement X (1670-1676): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  265. Bl. Innocent XI (1676-1689) : Como, Italy
  266. Alexander VIII (1689-1691) : Venice, Italy
  267. Innocent XII (1691-1700) : Spinazzola, Italy
  268. Clement XI (1700-1721) : Urbino, Italy
  269. Innocent XIII (1721-1724): Rome, Papal States, Italy
  270. Benedict XIII (1724-1730): Gravina in Puglia, Italy
  271. Clement XII (1730-1740): Florence, Italy
  272. Benedict XIV (1740-1758): Bologna, Italy
  273. Clement XIII (1758-1769): Venice, Italy
  274. Clement XIV (1769-1774) : Sant'Arcangelo di Romagna, Italy
  275. Pius VI (1775-1799): Cesena, Italy
  276. Pius VII (1800-1823): Cesena, Italy
  277. Leo XII (1823-1829): Genga, Italy
  278. Pius VIII (1829-1830): Cingoli, Italy
  279. Gregory XVI (1831-1846): Belluno, Italy
  280. Bl. Pius IX (1846-1878) Senigallia, Italy
  281. Leo XIII (1878-1903): Carpineto Romano, Italy
  282. St. Pius X (1903-1914): Riese Pio X, Italy
  283. Benedict XV (1914-1922): Genoa, Italy
  284. Pius XI (1922-1939): Desio, Italy
  285. Pius XII (1939-1958): Rome, Italy
  286. St. John XXIII (1958-1963): Sotto il Monte, Italy
  287. St. Paul VI (1963-1978): Concesio, Italy
  288. St. John Paul I (1978): Canale d'Agordo, Italy
  289. St. John Paul II (1978-2005):   Wadowice, Poland
  290. Benedict XVI (2005-2013): Marktl am Inn, Germany
  291. Francis (2013-Present): Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Sunday, April 13, 2025

Biblical Study: The Age of Kings and Prophets

Following the legendary reigns of King Saul and King David, the monarchy passed to David's son Solomon. Well renown for his wisdom, Solomon built the first temple to honor God and establish Israeli respect within the Mesopotamia region. The kingdoms of Israel and Judah later split after his reign however both endured many foreign wars. The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah prospered from 1000 BC to 600 BC with a total of 42 kings throughout this 400 year period. They were eventually conquered by the Neo-Babylonian empire under Nebuchadnezzar in 587 BC and put into captivity for some time. They were later freed by Cyrus the Great in 538 BC to return to their homes as a Persian vassal state. 

A new Israeli dynasty was briefly established in 140 BC when the Hasmoneans defeated the Seleucid Empire. As this point in history both the Greek and Persian empires were on the fall to the rise of the Roman Empire. Israel established an alliance with Rome, which allowed them to have their own monarchy for 103 years. That is until they became a puppet state of the Roman Empire in 37 BC during the reign of King Herod the Great. During this time insurgency arose once again, however the Romans ultimately crushed the resistance. In 70 AD the Romans lay siege to Jerusalem and destroyed their second temple which marked an abrupt end to Jewish influence in the land of Israel. 

During this age of kings, the prophets also played a key role as leaders and consultants. They were considered the voices of God, and would often relay this message to the king and the people. One of the most important of these prophets was Samuel, the king-maker. It was he who helped establish the kingdom of Israel by guiding both Saul and David. He was then followed by Nathan, Elijah, Elisha, and many others thru the early portions of the monarchy. At various stages throughout Israeli history these prophets were considered as leaders of the people.

The Reign of Solomon

The son of David and Bathsheba, Solomon became the 4th king of Israel and considered as one of the greatest. He was not a war tyrant like his predecessors but rather a devout prophet of great wisdom. For this reason God chose him to build the first temple that would host the Ark of the Covenant in Jerusalem. His wealth and wisdom became famous throughout the land, as demonstrated by the ceremonial visit of Queen of Sheba. Perhaps one of his most famous trials of judgement was when he heard the case of the two women. One had lost a child and accused the other of stealing it. In order to seek the truth Solomon suggested the child be killed, and therefore the true mother revealed herself in her love and emotion for her child. 

Aside from his wisdom, wealth, and various construction projects (such as his lavish throne) Solomon also dealt with internal enemies. The first of these enemies was his brother Adonijah, and the commander Joab who had wronged Solomon's father David on various occasions. Joab was eventually killed by Solomon's new appointed military commander Benaiah. Perhaps Solomon's greatest sin was the numerous wives and concubines he took, some of which turned him away from God. This was because he had taken on foreign wives, from the lands of Moab, Ammon, Edom, Sidon, Hittites, and Egyptians who worshiped other gods. According to the bible Solomon had 700 wives and 300 concubines. He reigned for 40 years and passed the monarchy to his son Rehoboam.   

The Split of Israel and Judah

The land of Israel and Judah were united under the reign of King David, however there was still tension amongst the two. After the death of Solomon, his son Rehoboam quickly lost favor with the northern Israelites. Israel thus declared their own king, in Jeorboam who lead a revolt against King Rehoboam. After nearly 20 years of civil war, the Israelites left the House of David (in Judah) to establish their own kingdom (Israel), with their new capital in the city of Samaria. Thus there were now two kings of the Hebrews; Rehoboam reigned the Kingdom of Judah from 922-915 BC, while Jeroboam reigned the Kingdom of Israel from 922-901 BC.  

The Book of Kings then goes on to describe the reign of each king during this historical period. It's quite fascinating at this point, since these are all indeed historical kings that deal with historical issues. The bible however demonstrates that each king's reign was decided not upon their merit, but rather their faith in God. Thus a good majority of the kings of Israel and even Judah did evil in the eyes of the lord and for the reason their people suffered. One of the more favorable gods of the Israelites was Jehu (841-814 BC) for having destroyed the cult and temple of Baal. The Kingdom of Israel was the first to be conquered by the Assyrians in 722 BC under the reign of King Hoshea.   

It seems clear in the Book of Kings and Chronicles, that God took favor with the Kingdom of Judah over Israel. There are far more "good" kings of Judah then there are of Israel, Such as King Asa (911-870 BC) who rooted out idolatry and defeated the Ethiopians. His son Jehoshaphat (870-849 BC) who solidified the Kingdom of Judah against it's enemies such as Israel as well strengthening the laws of Moses. The King Jotham (740-732 BC), who honored God by expanding the Temple and fought successful wars against the Arameans and the Ammons. King Hezekiah (739-687 BC) who also helped improve the temple, destroy any forms of idolatry, and defeated the enemy Philistines. Hezekiah was also able to make peace with the Assyrians in 701 BC. King Josiah (640-609) also made significant contributions and reforms to the Jewish law of God. Zedekiah was the last king of Judah, after it was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar in 597 BC and the temple was destroyed.

The Kings of Israel and Judah

United Monarchy

  • Saul  (1020-1000 BC) 
  • Ish-Bosheth (1000-998 BC) 
  • David (1000-962 BC)
  • Solomon (962-922 BC)
  • Rehoboam (922-915 BC)
Kingdom of Israel (Northern Kingdom)
  • Jeroboam (922-901 BC)
  • Nadab (901-900 BC)
  • Baasha (900-877 BC)
  • Elah (877-876 BC)
  • Zimri (876-885 BC)
  • Tibni (876-885 BC)
  • Omri (876-869 BC)
  • Ahab (850-849 BC)
  • Ahaiah (850-849 BC)
  • Joram (849-842 BC)
  • Jehu (842-815 BC)
  • Jehoahaz (815-801 BC)
  • Jehoash (801-786 BC)
  • Jeroboam II (786-746 BC)
  • Zachariah (746 BC)
  • Shallum (745 BC)
  • Menahem (745-738 BC)
  • Pekahiah (738-737 BC)
  • Pekah (737-732 BC)
  • Hoshea (732-722 BC) 

Kingdom of Judah (Southern Kingdom)

  • Abijah (915-913 BC)
  • Asa (913-873 BC)
  • Jehoshaphat (873-849 BC)
  • Jehoram (849-842 BC)
  • Ahaziah (842 BC)
  • Athaliah (842-837 BC)
  • Jehoash (837-800 BC)
  • Amaziah (800-783 BC)
  • Uzziah (783-742 BC)
  • Jotham (742-735 BC)
  • Ahaz (735-715 BC)
  • Hezekiah (715-687 BC)
  • Manasseh (687-642 BC)
  • Amon (642-640)
  • Josiah (640-609 BC)
  • Jeoahaz (609 BC)
  • Jehoiakim (609-598 BC)
  • Jehoicachin (598 BC)
  • Zedekiah (597-587 BC)

Babylonian Captivity

The destruction of Solomon's Temple in 597 BC by the Babylonian Empire marked an end to both the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah. None of which would return to their former glory yet rather a vassal state of larger empires. The majority of Jewish population were deported into Babylon in 2 waves. 1st in 597 when Nebuchadnezzar sieged the city of Jerusalem, took some prisoners, while allowing the state to remain and pay him tribute. Then in 587 Nebuchadnezzar returned to destroy the city outright, under King Zedekiah, after it failed to pay him proper tributes. Although the entire city of Jerusalem was deported into Babylon, the rural pockets of Judah were able to remain. It is estimated that 25% (20,000) Jews were sent into exile.

However it should be noted that although they were uprooted from their homeland, they were not entirely made into slaves (as they were in Egypt). Most of the Jews were allocated to the outskirts of the city, where some lived a privileged life, while others were forced to work in agriculture or labor camps. Nonetheless they were still able to practice their religious beliefs and Mosaic traditions. In 539 BC, Cyrus the Great led his Persian army to conquer the Babylonian Empire of which he later freed the Jews. After 60 years in exile the Jews were able to return to their homeland, however as a vassal state of the Persian Empire.

The Second Temple

Upon returning to the land of Israel the Jews no longer had kings to lead them, yet rather high priests and prophets. One of the first notable leaders was Zerubbabel, his prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and his high priest Joshua who began construction on the Second Temple from 521-516 BC. The laws and practices of the Jewish people were later enforced by the prophets Ezra and Nehemiah. Ezra emphasized the importance of the Torah and to not interact with foreigners, while Nehemiah also implemented religious reforms and rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem. Although their state was still under Persian control, the Jewish solidified their religious law and practice during this period.

Perhaps one of the most well known biblical stories also occurred during this time, that of Esther. Whether fictional or historical it served as a great allegory to the presence of God during trying times. She became wife to the Persian King Ahasuerus (otherwise known as Xerxes) and was able to convince him from saving the Jews from the wrath of the wicked advisor Haman. After being offended by the Jewish advisor Mordecai, Haman plotted to kill all the Jews, however thanks to Esther the King intervened and had Haman executed. This triumph later became celebrated in the Jewish festival of Purim, giving praise to God for surviving annihilation at the hands of the Persians. 

The Prophets

During this age of Kings throughout the Old Testament there were several important prophets who imposed the will of God to the Israelites. They often served at the hand of the king or as influential elder priests who oversaw the law of God. There were four major prophets and twelve minor prophets before and after the exile. The four major prophets were Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel (all with books of their own. The twelve minor were Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

  • Joel (850 BC) - Prophesized on the plague of locusts
  • Jonah (800 BC)- He disobeyed God's call to preach to the city of Nineveh, and thus was punished by being swallowed by a whale. For three days he dwelt within the whale, and prayed to God until he was released. 
  • Amos (780-755 BC)- Spoke out against the social injustice against the poor and the corruption of the wealthy
  • Hosea (760-710 BC)- Spoke out against idolatry and prophesized the doom of northern Israel.
  • Micah (740 BC)- Prophesized against social injustice, the downfall of Israel, and the birth of a messiah in Bethlehem.  
  • Isaiah (740-680 BC)- One of the most well known of the prophets thru his Book of Isaiah. He prophesizes on the coming of the Messiah, of his death and the resurrection. He warned Israel from it's sins and it's downfalls and looked to a new savior to bring them salvation. 
  • Nahum (666-615 BC)- Prophesized the downfall of the Assyrian empire and the city of Nineveh to bring comfort to the Jews
  • Zephaniah (630-620 BC)- He prophesized the destruction of Jerusalem if the people did not repent
  • Habakkuk (627-587 BC)- Prays for the injustices and questions why God allows evil to occur
  • Jeremiah (626-580 BC)- The author of the Book of Jeremiah and Lamentations he is considered the weeping prophet for his prophecies on the fall of Jerusalem due to their disobedience to God. 
  • Daniel (604-535 BC)- Known as an interpreter of dreams, he consulted the King Nebuchadnezzar before he was thrown into a lion's den for not worshiping him. Daniel is saved by the grace of God, and then goes on to prophesize on the coming of a new Messiah in his Book of Daniel.
  • Ezekiel (593-570 BC)- Prophesized the restoration of the Israelites thru visions, including his most famous one in the Valley of Dry Bones. In this vision he saw the dry bones of the dead rising up to life, to symbolize the resurrection of Israel. 
  • Obadiah (585 BC)- He condemned the nation of Edom for their wickedness towards Israel, as well as the message of humility
  • Haggai (520 BC)- He is best known for encouraging the Israelites to rebuild the Second Temple after returning from Babylonian captivity
  • Zechariah (520-518 BC)- He also urged the construction of the Second Temple, and shared his visions of God's plans to restore Israel thru a Messiah
  • Malachi (450-400 BC)- Called the Israelites into repentance and prophesized on the coming of a messenger (John the Baptist) who would prepare the way for the lord.

The Maccabean Revolt

In the Book of Maccabees the rise of Alexander the Great is recounted who conquered the Persian Empire. The region of Israel then became a state of the Ptolemaic Kingdom (which was the Greek-Egyptian kingdom of Alexander). Israel remains under Ptolemaic control from 300-200 BC until they are conquered by the Seleucid Empire (also a former kingdom of Alexander). It is at this point that the Jews rise up again to lead a revolt to restore their monarchy. They are led by Judas Maccabeus in the year 167 BC in what is known as the Maccbean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire which lasted until 141 BC.

The bible recounts how Judas Maccabeus and his brothers Jonathan and Simon prayer to God to deliver them victory as he once did with Moses, Joshua, and David. Thru various battles and over twenty years of fighting the Israelite rebels are finally able to achieve independence in 141 BC. The first feast of of Hanukkah is celebrated to commemorate the recapture of Jerusalem and the Second Temple from Seleucid control. Simon is able to secure a peaceful alliance with the Roman Republic and establishes the Hasmonean Kingdom in Israel. From 104-37 BC there are 6 more kings to reign over Israel, until they are once again subjugated this time by the Roman Republic.     

The Roman Destruction of Jerusalem

In 37 BC King Antigonus II Mattathias became the last king of Judea until he is overthrown by Herod the Great at the behest of the Roman Republic. Thru strong ties with Julius Caesar, Herod becomes appointed as 1st governor of the newly established province of Rome. Despite helping bring an end to the Hasmonean Dynasty, Herod is still a devout Jew and makes great contributions to the city of Jerusalem. He renovates and expands the Second Temple by building the Western Wall in 19 BC (which still stands to this day). However Herod is often criticized as a great villain during the Nativity Story, by which he seeks to hunt this coming Messiah and slaughter thousands of innocent children. After Herod's death in 4 BC the kingdom of Judea was further divided into smaller Roman provinces among his sons. 

By this point the Roman Republic had transformed into a Roman Empire under Augustus by which Roman prefects oversaw the affairs of Judea. It is also quite significant that during this time Jesus of Nazareth began his life (approx. 4 BC-33 AD) considered as the new Messiah of God. His ministry took a significant hold throughout Jerusalem, of which he was later executed by Jewish elders. However Jesus' religious movement (that would eventually inspire the spread of Christianity), was merely at the backdrop of a rising political insurgency throughout Judea. 

Known as zealots, many insurgents throughout Judea began to publicly oppose Roman occupation. This wave of Jewish nationalism grew after Herod's death with a desire to replicate the successful Maccabean Revolution over the Seleucid Empire 200 years earlier. The first Jewish outbreak of rebellion against the Romans occurred in 66 AD which brought a start to the Jewish-Roman War of 66-74 AD. The Jews achieved a significant victory at the Battle of Beth Horon to briefly establish it's own government in Jerusalem. However it was quickly crushed by the Roman armies under the command of Vespasian and Emperor Titus. In 70 AD the Siege of Jerusalem occurred which destroyed the second temple and once again completely subjugated the Jews. This marked a major turning point in Jewish history, where they were sent into a diaspora away from Israel.         

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