Historical Study of Mexico

I've decided to expand on my Mesoamerican phase into an overall Mexican appreciation phase. This is surprisingly my first ever full emersion into Mexican history and culture. Furthermore I intend for this phase to go beyond Mexico into a full on summer of Latin culture, leading up to our big trip to Colombia in October. It's funny though how these phases of mine, sometimes don't go to plan. For example I intended to kick off a Japanese phase following my Cold War studies, but instead got diverted by a space phase and now a Mexican phase. I'm sure I'll get to the Japanese phase later on. I just love cultural and historical phases that keep me learning and experiencing new things. 

So as I touched on in my previous post regarding the history of Mesoamerica this fascination is brought on by our trip to Cancun a few weeks ago. I described how that was only my 2nd trip to Mexico, but I am already quite familiar with their culture. I have had many Mexican friends and associates throughout my life and find them to be a friendly people. I especially enjoy their music, food, and drinks (as I think most Americans do). But surprisingly I don't know much on their history and have yet to make a deep dive into the topic. I believe it is broken up ultimately into three phases; the Mesoamericans, the Spanish colonial period, and their independence. 

As I usually do I'll write a separate post following this one that focuses primarily on Mexican culture. This post will lay the foundation of Mexico's historical story. I'm going to continue where I left off in my last post on Mesoamerica and pickup the timeline at the Spanish conquest of the 1500s. This was a period of cultural and religious assimilation where Catholicism became the new standard. It was not until the 1800s that the Mexican people established their own identity under the leadership of famous revolutionaries Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. And despite that independence they continued to be at odds against their northern neighbor the United States up until present day. So I want to better understand the key periods, conflicts, and leaders of Mexican history. 

New Spain

Following the fall of the Aztec Empire in 1521 the Spanish conqueror Hernan Cortes renamed the colony as New Spain and the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan became Mexico City. This new kingdom stretched from the North American territory of Florida, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California; most of Central America, the Caribbean islands, and parts of South America. The capital city of the Spanish conquest became Mexico City, where all trade and expeditions into Latin America came from. The native indigenous were quickly subdued into slave labor and Spanish immigrants arrived to cash in on the labor force as well as the rich silver and resources to mine.

However the Spanish conquerors continued to face opposition from the native Mesoamericans for the next 100 years, notably in Mayan regions and from the Chichimeca Confederation. Soon after however a new cultural society was established that mixed European settlers with native Mesoamericans. Government and social classes were established that placed Spanish settlers at the highest positions, criollos (Spanish born in Mexico) at the 2nd highest, Mestizos (mixed of Spanish and Native heritage) at the 3rd highest, and of course the natives at the bottom class. While the location was booming with economic resource, it's entire purpose was to support the Spanish Empire, therefore it's true potential was limited.

Despite this terrible conquest, Mexico became the center of a new Spanish renaissance in the Americas, that brought on a fusion of European and native customs. The first school, university, and printing press of the Americas were established to help encourage education. Juana Ines de la Cruz became the first famous writer born in colonial Mexico. Other significant works of architecture, cathedrals, monuments, and colonial forts were constructed in cities such as Mexico City, Peubla, Queretaro, and Zacatecas. The iconic Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City began construction in 1573 at the main town square known as Zocalo, which was the former central plaza of Tenochtitlan. The Catholic church was built in phases and finally completed in 1813 in Gothic fashion. 

Also from this cultural fusion came new cultural customs such as the production of tequila, Mexican cuisine, rancheros, and the music and dance of the mariachi and jarabe. By the early 1800s the natives and Spanish born Criollos grew in united strength to oppose the Spanish Imperial power. This was a similar pattern that took place in the United States in the late 1700s, as well as throughout most of Latin America during the 1800s. The American inhabitants had simply outgrown their foreign European conquerors. 

Independence Movement

The revolutionary ideals within Mexico were no doubt inspired by the events in America and France at the end of the 1700s. Miguel Hidalgo was a professor and Catholic priest inspired by ideals from the Enlightenment he became the voice and leader of this revolution. The situation boiled over during the Peninsula War (1807-1814), where Spain was defeated by Napoleon's French Army. A new coalition within New Spain emerged uniting influential conservatives with Mexican insurgents. The revolution got started in September of 1810 when Miguel Hidalgo met with military leaders Ignacio Allende and Juan Aldama to give a public call to arms against the Spanish, now known as the Cry of Dolores. Shortly after the Mexican insurgents stormed the royalist outpost in Guanajuato to begin the war.

The Spanish Royal army responded a few months later to this insurgency at the Battle of Calderon Bridge in January of 1811. Despite their greater numbers they were no match for the advanced Spanish military tactics and were routed in the battle. The insurgent's leader Miguel Hidalgo, Ignacio Allende, and Juan Aldama were later captured and executed. The insurgency died down for a little after this but then reorganized under the leadership of the Catholic priest Jose Maria Morelos. The insurgents achieved notable victories in the southern port of Acapulco, Veracruz, and Oaxaca. Morelos was chosen as the supreme commander, that helped establish the official Mexican declaration of independence and a congress in November of 1813. Morelos was later defeated in a series of battles at Valladolid and executed in 1815.

From there the insurgent leadership passed to Vicente Guerrero who had been conducting successful guerilla campaigns in southern Mexico. He was aided by the military leadership of Guadalupe Victoria who had also achieved victories in the region of Puebla. However from 1816-1820 the main cities remained unscathed under royalist control, while the outer regions experienced continuous insurgency. That was until 1820 when the Mexican insurgents got a lucky break thanks to the Trienio Liberal revolution that occurred in Spain. In response to this change in Spanish government the royalist military commander, Agustin de Ilturbide switched sides to join the insurgents. This was a crushing blow to the royalist army and opened the doors for Mexican independence.

Augstin de Ilturbide negotiated with the insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero to create the Plan of Iguala in Feburary of 1821. Also known as the Plan of Three Guarantees it established the principles of Catholicism, independence from Spain, and equality for all races within Mexico. Thus came an end to the Mexican War of Independence. A new Mexican government and flag were established, known as the Mexican Empire. Under the leadership of Emperor Agustin I the monarchy was short lived and later dissolved and replaced by a republic in 1824. 

Insurgent leader Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of Mexico's republic in 1824. He was later succeeded by the insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero in 1829. During Guerrero's brief presidency he abolished slavery however was later overthrown just a few months into his presidency. He returned to the south to wage a civil war against President Anastasio Bustamente and his ally Nicolas Bravo. Guerrero achieved some success until he was captured in 1831 by an Italian merchant and handed over to the Mexican courts for execution. The Mexican republic then underwent various political shifts and was eventually replaced by a more conservative regime in 1835 that became known as the Centralist Republic of Mexico.

Conflicts with the United States

Since it's independence in 1821 the Mexican government was constantly ongoing civil internal conflict among it's military-political leaders known as caudillos. The president of the Centralist Republic therefore never had outright power, and it was rather divided among multiple prominent politicians. Furthermore their territory in the north began to whither beginning with Texas in 1832. This territory was sought after by American immigrants seeking to establish outposts for western trade, resource mining, and Native expulsion. They were mostly led by Stephen F. Austin who had received a settlement grant from the Mexican government. However it did not take long for Austin to bring on his American customs in opposition to Mexican law, most notably that of slavery.

After years of hostility within the region the Texas Revolution broke out in October of 1835 between Texan settlers and Mexican army soldiers at the Battle of Gonzales. A few months later Austin led his Texan milita to victory at the Siege of Bexar (present day San Antonio). However the Mexican Army responded with a full on siege at the Battle of the Alamo to reclaim the territory in March of 1836. As a result of this defeat some 440 Texan prisoners were later massacred at Goliad. The Texans were not finished however and under the leadership of Sam Houston with a war-cry to "Remember the Alamo" they achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of San Jacinto. The Republic of Texas was thus established in 1836, independent from Mexico, with stronger ties to the United States.

However the Mexican government refused to recognize the Republic of Texas, and conflicts continued well into the 1840s. That was until 1845 when the United States annexed Texas to become it's 28th state. Mexico was now not in conflict with Texas but with the entire United States over this region, which brought on the Mexican-American War in 1845. The conflict began with the Thornton Affair in April 1846, fought over contested territory along the Rio Grande, where the Mexican Army assaulted an American contingency. In response to this the United States declared war on Mexico a few days later in May of 1846.        

Under the leadership of Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Mexico began hostilities with a full on siege of Fort Texas but later withdrew after several days. US army general Stephen Kearny then launched a military campaign into New Mexico territory to capture the regions of New Mexico and California. Kearney was able to capture Santa Fe in August without a shot fired and established a new American government to continue the war. From here the American army pushed further west into California also without much resistance and captured southern California by January of 1847. 

The Mexican theater put up much more of a fight against American general Zachary Taylor. The Battle of Monterrey was hard fought by both sides, but victory achieved by the Americans. However the subsequent Battle of Buena Vista in February of 1847 was more of a Mexican victory. That success was short-lived however due to superior American weapons and tactics. Furthermore indigenous uprisings supported by the Americans, sprang up all across Mexican territory most notably the Navajos and the Mayans. The American Siege of Veracruz in March of 1847 opened the doors for their full assault on Mexico City. 

American General Winfield Scott's campaign to Mexico City was accompanied by notable future military men Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, George Meade, Ulysses Grant, James Longstreet, and Stonewall Jackson. They achieved another victory at the Battle of Cerro Gordo, easily marched thru Puebla, and then led a series of engagements at the Battle of Mexico in September of 1847. While the American army occupied Mexico City, there was debate among American politicians whether they should annex all of Mexican territory on par with their Manifest Destiny. However this notion was shot down by a proponent of racist politicians who did not want to adopt indigenous people into their nation.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February of 1848 and became a massive territory loss for Mexico. A new border was established along the Rio Grande, which gave the United States total control of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado (which were all eventually turned into states of America). Mexico fell into shambles after this defeat, with continued political disputes and a weakening financial economy. By 1854 Mexico's influential leader Santa Anna was forced into exile, which ultimately ushered in a new era of Mexican reform and government.

The Mexican Reformation

In 1854 a new series of liberal reforms known as the Plan of Ayutla were enacted which ousted the conservative leader Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. In 1857 President Ignacio Comonfort instituted a new liberal constitution which essentially gave the people more individual rights and freedom from the Catholic Church. This however was heavily opposed by the conservative factions and eventually led to a full scale civil war known as the Reform War from 1857-1861. The Most Excellent Benito Juarez succeeded Comonfort to successfully repel the Conservative insurgency led by conservative General Felix Zuloaga. 

While the Reform War ended with a liberal victory in 1861 it was rather short lived due to French Intervention by Napoleon III. This was mostly due to foreign debts that Mexico had owed to France, but also Napoleon's desire to re-establish a French Imperial presence in the Americas. The defeated Mexican conservative faction supported this French invasion that overthrew Mexico City by 1863. An Austrian archduke named Maximilian became the emperor of the newly established Mexican Empire (which was ultimately a French puppet state). Benito Juarez fled to the north, where he was able to continue the Republic fight and eventually gathered support from the United States after they finished their own Civil War in 1865. 

With support from the United States Juarez' republic government was able to repel the French occupation who were also facing conflicts back in Europe against Prussia. By 1867 the French were forced to leave Mexico, and Benito Juarez was reinstated as president of the Republic of Mexico. The Mexican Empire was disbanded and emperor Maximilian was executed. Benito Juarez remained president until his death in 1872 and is regarded as one of the greatest of Mexican presidents for his resilience in the face of civil conflict and foreign intervention. 

The Porfiriato

In 1876 the liberal general Porfirio Diaz led a coup known as the Plan of Tuxtepec which established a new dictatorship over Mexico known as the Porfiriato. Despite his unjust rise to power, Porfirio established good relations with the prominent leaders of Mexico as well as the foreign powers of the United States and Great Britain. A new age of progress and industrialization boomed throughout Mexico not felt since their defeat by the Americans in 1848. Porfiriato ruled with an iron fist, creating a secret police throughout the rural regions and fixing each election so that he won.  

Porfirio's dictatorship was one of tight control but also major progress for the nation of Mexico. This was due to his philosophy of science and technology over the principles of religion and the Catholic church. During this industrial boom, the Mexican economy also began to grow, and just as with the United States or Europe this free market established a great gap between the wealthy titans and the majority of laborers. It was only a matter of time before the religious peasants, laborers, and socialist ideals organized to disrupt his 35 year reign of capitalism. 

Mexican Revolution

Despite much unhappiness from the laborers during the Porfiriato there really wasn't much organized opposition until the election of 1910. This was brought about when Porfirio stole another election, and his opposition Francisco Madero called for an armed uprising. As a prominent landowner and businessman, Madero was able to rally many laborers to his cause. Within a year there were numerous uprisings against the Federal army. By May of 1911, Diaz abdicated his leadership and went into exile so that Madero could assume the office of presidency. This was the first phase of the revolution and was fairly a non-violent one, bringing and end to the 35 year Porfiriato dictatorship.

The presidency of Madero was shrouded with conflict however as the peasants felt abandoned and soon began to demand land led by the famous Emiliano Zapata. Meanwhile President Madero had a second group of enemies, loyalists to Porfirio Diaz, who waged a coup in February of 1913. The coup was led by General Victoriano Huerta with the support of the United States and was a bloody conflict referred to as the Ten Tragic Days. President Madero was eventually captured and murdered and the Porifiristas rebels took back the government. General Huerta became president, who was at first on Madero's side then switched to join the rebels. However this presidency was also short-lived due to increasing victories from Zapata's rebels.

By 1913 rebel leader Francisco Pancho Villa joined forced with Zapata to wage civil war against President Huerta. They were also supported by the prominent governor Venustiano Carranza who established a Constitutionalist Army. Despite passing military conscription laws, Huerta quickly suffered defeats by Zapata's forces, as well as a crushing occupation in Veracruz by the United States. By July of 1914 Huerta was forced to resign his presidency and the federal army was disbanded. This led to a brief interbellum period in which Carranza could not come to terms with Pancho Villa and Zapata, and so the war took on another phase. Villa and Zapata formed the Conventiontist army to oppose the Constitutionalist army. 

The Constitutionalists achieved a key victory at the Battle of Celaya in 1915 which further empowered Carranza's grip on the government. However Villa and Zapata continued their uprisings against Carranza's power as well as the region of New Mexico. Carranza was able to enlist support from the US, after sharing the Zimmermann Telegram with them (Germany's plot to lure Mexico into the WWI conflict). Shortly after this, the Constitution of 1917 was adopted which made Carranza president and appealed the Conventionists' demands for land and social rights. Despite this Zapata and Villa continued to oppose the Constitutionalist government. Zapata was eventually assassinated in April of 1919 and Pancho Villa assassinated in 1923. Despite this however both Zapata and Villa became glorified as heroes of the people for establishing rights for the lower classes in the Constitution of 1917. 

In the election of 1920 Carranza attempted to select a puppet leader, however he was opposed by prominent generals. Carranza was eventually ran out of town and murdered, and the government passed on to various generals such as Adolfo de la Huerta, Alvaro Obregon, and Plutarco Elias Calles. With the deaths of Carranza, Emiliano Zapata, and Pancho Villa the revolution withered away. The newly formed constitutional government (established in the Constitution of 1917) has held strong to this day. It puts a great emphasis on social rights and a centralized government free from the Catholic Church. Ever since the revolution Mexico has continued to improve it's economy as well as it's relation with it's mighty northern neighbor, the United States. 

Historical Study of Mesoamerica

Last week I went to an all inclusive resort at Cancun, Mexico with my family. This was my 2nd time in Mexico the first being in 2000 as a freshman, when I joined my best friend Sergio and his family for a week. That experience was quite special since I got an authentic view into Mexican culture, within the city of Sabinas Hidalgo in the northern state of Nuevo Leon. This 2nd experience was the complete opposite visiting a tourist hot-spot on the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, best known as the spring break destination. For 4 days we enjoyed the beautiful beaches with a very tasty all you can eat/drink menu. The water was very refreshing and the seafloor was much softer and sandier then it was in Punta Cana. All-in-all I enjoyed this resort destination a little more than Punta Cana. 

My only regret on this trip was that we were unable to visit the historical site of Chichen Itza. I knew going into the trip that it would be a major effort that would cut into our rather short relaxation time and had my doubts that it would happen. A trip to the iconic pyramid would have cost us 6 hours in a car-ride which frankly I nor my family wanted to exchange for a relaxing day on the beach. So I decided there will be a 2nd visit to Cancun and I will make it a priority to visit Chichen Itza, the ancient city of the Mayans. Which thus brings on this segue to a new fascination into Mesoamerican history brought on by this recent trip. 

The past few years now I've tried to branch out from my westernized/European influence by studying lesser known cultures. This includes deep dives into Chinese, Indian, Middle Eastern, and Colombian history. I love all sorts of world culture and history and can especially relate to Latin America from my Colombian heritage. I am thus already quite familiar with the region of Central America. I visited Costa Rica and Nicaragua in 2009 and have had many Mexican friends and associates throughout my life. As the southern neighbors to America, Mexican customs are quite infused in our daily lives. Every American enjoys Mexican food and drinks, and can likely understand a little bit of Spanish much more then French or German. 

It's quite interesting how our Native Americans never really compared to the scale, size, and advancements of the Mayans or Aztecs. It was within Mesoamerica as far back as 7000 BC, that came the dawning of a new cradle of life and civilization in the western hemisphere. The civilizations of Mesoamerica run simultaneous to those of Ancient Egypt, Sumer, India, and China. They developed their own system of trade, economy, government, writing, science, astronomy, medicine, architecture, and so much more. This was long before any influence from the west which ultimately brought about their demise during the Spanish Conquest of the 1500s. So here I'd like to dive deeper into the main Mesoamerican tribes and their linear evolution leading up to that tragic conquest. 

The Olmecs

The earliest settlements of Mesoamerica date as far back as 8000 BC, in a period known as the Archaic Period. During this time new techniques of agriculture were developed including their groundbreaking production of maize. The natives established settlements along the western coast of Mexico and Guatemala and spread more inland throughout the years. One of the first major civilizations of Mesoamerica were the Olmecs who settled on the eastern border in the region known as Veracruz from 1200 BC to 400 BC. Numerous archeological sites discovered in this region give historians an idea of how advanced this civilization was.

It is believed their capital city was San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan (not to be confused with the Tenochtitlan of Mexico City). They established a booming civilization much thanks to rich soil supported by rivers coming from the Gulf of Mexico. They were best known for their artifacts and rock sculpting, the most famous being their colossal heads weighing nearly 50 tons. Following the decline of San Lorenzo, La Venta became their new center. It was hear that they built the Great Pyramid, one of the largest structures of it's time. By around 400 BC the civilization began to decline most likely due to environmental changes (such as volcano activity). 

The Mayans

The first settlements of the iconic Mayan civilization began as far back as 2000 BC in the Yucatan Peninsula. The agriculture was rich in these areas with mass production of maize, beans, squash, and chilli peppers. By around 750 BC some of the first Mayan cities were developed which demonstrated their impressive architecture and also their hieroglyphic writings. The Mayans built many monuments, temples, and pyramids dedicated to their gods. By around 250 AD they reached their classical period and had developed a system of city-states and a trade network. They established a mathematical calendar system which they used for architecture, agriculture, and astronomy. 

Some of the biggest Mayan cities were in Tikal, Guatemala and Calakmul, Mexico where impressive pyramid temples still stand to this day. The Tikal Temple was built in 732 AD and stood at an impressive 154 feet. Perhaps it's most iconic region was to the north in Chichen Itza where they built their iconic Castillo (from 1050-1300 AD). This structure stood at a towering 181 feet, not only as the tallest building in Mayan civilization but also the most elaborate. Another significant kingdom of the Mayans were the mighty K'iche people located in mainland Santa Cruz, Guatemala.  

Just like all civilizations they had a system of classes and were ruled by a divine king who served as a mediator between the people and the gods. They also classes of nobles, priests, war-chiefs, warriors, commoners, and slaves. The Mayans were not a conquering people however did use war tactics to control key trading routes and capture slaves. Trade markets flourished in some of the larger cities, where crops, artifacts, resources, and even slaves could be traded. Just like the Olmecs, the Mayans also put forth a lot of effort into their art, artifacts, and buildings.      

The Mayans developed a very sophisticated writing system, which demonstrated their practice of mathematics and a very advanced calendar system. They measured the lunar and solar cycles with incredible accuracy which also demonstrated their great knowledge of astronomy. They believed in powerful deities who controlled the weather, crops, the sun, and the stars. These religious beliefs often brought on their more savage practice of human sacrifice as an offering to their gods. This usually included captive warrior men whose hearts were extracted, they were beheaded, and bodies thrown from pyramids. By around 900 AD the Mayan civilization mysteriously began to collapse or rather disperse from their main-lands. Perhaps due to foreign invasions, droughts, epidemics, or failing trade routes. 

The Toltecs

Following the fall of the Mayans, several other tribes rose to prominence throughout Mesoamerica such as the Mayapans in the Yucatan Peninsula, the Toninas (Chiapas highlands), the Kaminaljuyu in the Guatemalan highlands, the Mam in western Guatemala, the Poqomam in the north east of Guatemala, and the Poqomam in northeast Guatemala. One of the most significant however was the Toltecs based in the capital city of Tula (on the outskirts of modern day Mexico City). The Toltecs also helped resurrect the ruined city of Teotihuacan with it's impressive Pyramids of the Moon and Sun. This city once stood as the central hub of the Teotuhuacanoas as one of the biggest cities in the history of Mesoamerica (around 200 AD).  

The Toltecs rose to prominence from 950 to 1150 and just as their predecessors did they were rich in agriculture and architecture. They established new mythological deities and customs that were eventually adopted and transfused into the Aztec and Mesoamerican culture. They built new monuments and renovated old ones all which praised their deities. The Toltecs had various disputes with other tribes in the Yucatan peninsula and eventually lost control of Cholula and Tula by around 1200 AD. 

The Aztecs

One of the best known Mesoamerican civilizations were the Aztecs who thrived from 1300 to the conquest of the Spanish in 1521. They were based in central Mexico, mostly at their capital city of Tenochtitlan (which is now modern day Mexico City). Their empire consisted of three major city states within the Valley of Mexico; Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. While they established their own empire, they took on many of the customs and religions of other Mesoamerican tribes such as the Toltecs. Unlike previous tribes however, they were a conquering people who defeated many neighboring tribes within the Basin of Mexico. By 1427 the Aztec Triple Alliance had become the greatest military power during the Mesoamerican age. 

The Empire reached it's peak in 1519 where it's territory spanned from coast to coast into parts of Guatemala. This powerful civilization was united by military conquest, trade, and marriage alliances. Smaller city-states were forced to pay taxes to the high king known as the Tlatoani. One of the greatest of these rulers was Montezuma I (1440-1469) who expanded territory, established legal codes, and initiated many new buildings and temples to the gods. The Aztecs were rich in agriculture, crafts, trade, art, writing, and religion. Their capital city of Tenochtitlan became a booming urban center of approx 700,000 residents with impressive buildings such as the Temple Mayor. However the Aztecs also had a dark savage side just as their predecessors and practiced sacrifice and cannibalism as offerings to the gods. 

By 1519 however the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes set sail from Cuba to arrive on the coast of Vercruz. With an intent to colonize territory, plunder gold, and convert the indigenous tribes to Christianity there was no question Cortes was an invader. Little by little he colonized regions, some peacefully and some violently until he came to the heart of the Aztec Empire. In Cholula he massacred 6000 Aztec warriors before continuing his march on Tenochtitlan. The ruler of the Aztecs, Montezuma II decided to welcome Cortes into the city, hoping for a peaceful resolution. However this diplomacy was short-lived due to religious differences and ongoing uprisings against the Spanish invaders. 

By 1520 however the tensions between the Aztecs and Spanish finally boiled over and the Spanish massacred and lay siege to the city of Tenochtitlan. Montezuma was killed mysteriously during the various engagements that followed (either by Spaniards, by his own people. or by suicide). His predecessor, Cuauhtémoc put up a fierce resistance however ultimately they were no match to the superior Spanish weapons. By 1521 the city had fallen and Cortes replaced all idols with Christian monuments. Soon after the city was renamed Mexico City, and the Aztecs (and all other Mesoamerican tribes) were assimilated into Spanish society.      

Mythological Deities

• 
  Huitzilopochtli: Father of the Aztecs. His name means Hummingbird of the left. He is the patron god who guided the Aztecs to build the city of Technotitlin and the great Templo Mayor pyramid. 
  
• Itzamna: The most important god of the Mayans, he was the creator, and the ruler of day and night. He taught the Mayans how to grow Maize and to use calendars and medicine. 
• Tlaloc: God of the rain and storms worshiped by the Olmecs, Mayans, and the Aztecs. 
• Tonatiuh: Aztec god of the sun. However the Aztecs believed he required blood worship and hence they performed sacrifices in his name. 
• Chaac: Was the Mayan rain god, popular throughout the Yucatan region. 
• Tezcatlipoca: God of night, death, the cold, and wicked forces. His name meant Smoking Mirror.
• Chalchiuhtlicue: Goddess of running water, the rivers, and the seas. She was also the patron of childbirth.
• Centeotl: God of Maize and the crops. This god was worshiped by the Olmes, Mayans, and the Aztecs. 
• Quetzalcoatl (or also known as Kukulkan): The feathered serpent who served as the god of knowledge and wisdom for the Aztecs and the Mayans. 
• Xipe Totec: God of fertility and sacrifice. 

Most Iconic Landmarks

• 
  San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan Colossal heads: Built by the Olmec people from 1400-900 BC. This is one of the oldest sites of Mesoamerican archeology.
• Great Pyramid of La Venta: Built by the Olmecs in 1800BC, it underwent various formations up until 200 AD. 
• High Temple of Lamanai: was built in 1600 BC by the Mayans located in Belize.
• Xunantunich: Mayan pyramid built known as the Maiden of the Rock was believed to have been built in 1000 BC in Belize. 
• El Mirador: Was a Mayan viewpoint and settlement built around 600 BC, located in El Peten, Guatemala.
• Uaxactun: Sacred place of the Mayans, the Temple of the Masks was built in the Peten Basin of Guatemala in 400 BC. 
• Tikal: One of the more iconic structures and 2nd tallest was built by the Mayans in the Peten Basin of Guatemala in 300 BC.
• Monte Alban: Was an important platform and center for the Zapotec people established in 500 BC in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico.
• Pyramid of the Sun: Was built by the Teotihuacanos as far back as 200 BC in the capital city of Teotihuacan. The building was later renovated by the Toltecs and Aztecs and stood an impressive 720 feet.  
  
• Pyramid of the Moon: Was built by the Teotihuacanos in 150 BC adjacent to the Pyramid of the Sun in what is referred to as the Avenue of the Dead.
• Guachimontones: Built by the Teuchitlan culture in the state of Jalisco 300 BC. The structure is a grass pyramid of layers referred to as La Iguana.
• Palenque: Is a Mayan city-state of various temples, pyramids, and statues built from 226 BC to 799 AD located in the region of Chiapas, Mexico.
  
• Xochicalco: Another Mayan pyramid structure found in the state of Morelos, it was first occupied in 200 BC. 
• 
  Uxmal: Home to the iconic Pyramid of the Magician, that was built between 700-1000 AD. The Mayan structure stands at 131 feet overlooking the Yucatan Peninsula. 
• Chichen Itza: One of the most famous Mayan structures, El Castillo temple was built in 600-750 standing at an impressive 181 feet. The temple was dedicated to their god of Wisdom, Kukulkan.
• Mayapan: Another site of the Mayans from 1200-1440, with a large temple pyramid also dedicated to Kukulkan.
• El Tajin: Named after the Totnac Rain God, this site in Veracruz flourished from 600 to 1200 AD. It consists of a series of temples, pyramids, palaces, and ballcourts. 
• Templo Mayor: Was the central temple of the Aztecs erected in Tenochititlan in 1375 and was dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochti and Tlaloc. It once stood at 262 feet towering over the capital city of the Aztecs. Today however it stands in ruins, replaced by the iconic Zocalo main plaza square of Mexico City.     

Contributions

The Mesoamerican cultures were a cradle of life in the western hemisphere and created many societal contributions that were eventually adopted by the Spanish and European peoples. Here is a list of some of their impressive contributions to the historical development of mankind;

• 
  Writing System: The Olmecs were the first to create a writing system in the Americas through a series of symbols. 
• Calendar: The Mesoamericans created groundbreaking calender system, based on lunar and solar cycles in accordance with their agriculture cycles. They also perfected the study and prediction of astronomy.
  
• Agriculture: The Mesoamericans were blessed with great soil and temperatures to produce many varieties of new crops such as maize, beans, and peppers that were later shared with the world.
• Architecture: Inspired by their polytheistic religion, they built many impressive monuments and temples on par with that of ancient Egypt. 
• Mathematics: They used a system of bars and dots to represent numbers and helped establish the concept of zero as a numeric value.
• Ulama ballgame: The Mesoamericans created a ceremonial sport played in ballcourts where players would use their hips to hit a ball into a ring.     
• Arts and Crafts: The arts and crafts of the ancient Mesoamericans are still admired and incorporated today in everyday Mexican culture.