Historical Study of Mesoamerica

Last week I went to an all inclusive resort at Cancun, Mexico with my family. This was my 2nd time in Mexico the first being in 2000 as a freshman, when I joined my best friend Sergio and his family for a week. That experience was quite special since I got an authentic view into Mexican culture, within the city of Sabinas Hidalgo in the northern state of Nuevo Leon. This 2nd experience was the complete opposite visiting a tourist hot-spot on the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, best known as the spring break destination. For 4 days we enjoyed the beautiful beaches with a very tasty all you can eat/drink menu. The water was very refreshing and the seafloor was much softer and sandier then it was in Punta Cana. All-in-all I enjoyed this resort destination a little more than Punta Cana. 

My only regret on this trip was that we were unable to visit the historical site of Chichen Itza. I knew going into the trip that it would be a major effort that would cut into our rather short relaxation time and had my doubts that it would happen. A trip to the iconic pyramid would have cost us 6 hours in a car-ride which frankly I nor my family wanted to exchange for a relaxing day on the beach. So I decided there will be a 2nd visit to Cancun and I will make it a priority to visit Chichen Itza, the ancient city of the Mayans. Which thus brings on this segue to a new fascination into Mesoamerican history brought on by this recent trip. 

The past few years now I've tried to branch out from my westernized/European influence by studying lesser known cultures. This includes deep dives into Chinese, Indian, Middle Eastern, and Colombian history. I love all sorts of world culture and history and can especially relate to Latin America from my Colombian heritage. I am thus already quite familiar with the region of Central America. I visited Costa Rica and Nicaragua in 2009 and have had many Mexican friends and associates throughout my life. As the southern neighbors to America, Mexican customs are quite infused in our daily lives. Every American enjoys Mexican food and drinks, and can likely understand a little bit of Spanish much more then French or German. 

It's quite interesting how our Native Americans never really compared to the scale, size, and advancements of the Mayans or Aztecs. It was within Mesoamerica as far back as 7000 BC, that came the dawning of a new cradle of life and civilization in the western hemisphere. The civilizations of Mesoamerica run simultaneous to those of Ancient Egypt, Sumer, India, and China. They developed their own system of trade, economy, government, writing, science, astronomy, medicine, architecture, and so much more. This was long before any influence from the west which ultimately brought about their demise during the Spanish Conquest of the 1500s. So here I'd like to dive deeper into the main Mesoamerican tribes and their linear evolution leading up to that tragic conquest. 

The Olmecs

The earliest settlements of Mesoamerica date as far back as 8000 BC, in a period known as the Archaic Period. During this time new techniques of agriculture were developed including their groundbreaking production of maize. The natives established settlements along the western coast of Mexico and Guatemala and spread more inland throughout the years. One of the first major civilizations of Mesoamerica were the Olmecs who settled on the eastern border in the region known as Veracruz from 1200 BC to 400 BC. Numerous archeological sites discovered in this region give historians an idea of how advanced this civilization was.

It is believed their capital city was San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan (not to be confused with the Tenochtitlan of Mexico City). They established a booming civilization much thanks to rich soil supported by rivers coming from the Gulf of Mexico. They were best known for their artifacts and rock sculpting, the most famous being their colossal heads weighing nearly 50 tons. Following the decline of San Lorenzo, La Venta became their new center. It was hear that they built the Great Pyramid, one of the largest structures of it's time. By around 400 BC the civilization began to decline most likely due to environmental changes (such as volcano activity). 

The Mayans

The first settlements of the iconic Mayan civilization began as far back as 2000 BC in the Yucatan Peninsula. The agriculture was rich in these areas with mass production of maize, beans, squash, and chilli peppers. By around 750 BC some of the first Mayan cities were developed which demonstrated their impressive architecture and also their hieroglyphic writings. The Mayans built many monuments, temples, and pyramids dedicated to their gods. By around 250 AD they reached their classical period and had developed a system of city-states and a trade network. They established a mathematical calendar system which they used for architecture, agriculture, and astronomy. 

Some of the biggest Mayan cities were in Tikal, Guatemala and Calakmul, Mexico where impressive pyramid temples still stand to this day. The Tikal Temple was built in 732 AD and stood at an impressive 154 feet. Perhaps it's most iconic region was to the north in Chichen Itza where they built their iconic Castillo (from 1050-1300 AD). This structure stood at a towering 181 feet, not only as the tallest building in Mayan civilization but also the most elaborate. Another significant kingdom of the Mayans were the mighty K'iche people located in mainland Santa Cruz, Guatemala.  

Just like all civilizations they had a system of classes and were ruled by a divine king who served as a mediator between the people and the gods. They also classes of nobles, priests, war-chiefs, warriors, commoners, and slaves. The Mayans were not a conquering people however did use war tactics to control key trading routes and capture slaves. Trade markets flourished in some of the larger cities, where crops, artifacts, resources, and even slaves could be traded. Just like the Olmecs, the Mayans also put forth a lot of effort into their art, artifacts, and buildings.      

The Mayans developed a very sophisticated writing system, which demonstrated their practice of mathematics and a very advanced calendar system. They measured the lunar and solar cycles with incredible accuracy which also demonstrated their great knowledge of astronomy. They believed in powerful deities who controlled the weather, crops, the sun, and the stars. These religious beliefs often brought on their more savage practice of human sacrifice as an offering to their gods. This usually included captive warrior men whose hearts were extracted, they were beheaded, and bodies thrown from pyramids. By around 900 AD the Mayan civilization mysteriously began to collapse or rather disperse from their main-lands. Perhaps due to foreign invasions, droughts, epidemics, or failing trade routes. 

The Toltecs

Following the fall of the Mayans, several other tribes rose to prominence throughout Mesoamerica such as the Mayapans in the Yucatan Peninsula, the Toninas (Chiapas highlands), the Kaminaljuyu in the Guatemalan highlands, the Mam in western Guatemala, the Poqomam in the north east of Guatemala, and the Poqomam in northeast Guatemala. One of the most significant however was the Toltecs based in the capital city of Tula (on the outskirts of modern day Mexico City). The Toltecs also helped resurrect the ruined city of Teotihuacan with it's impressive Pyramids of the Moon and Sun. This city once stood as the central hub of the Teotuhuacanoas as one of the biggest cities in the history of Mesoamerica (around 200 AD).  

The Toltecs rose to prominence from 950 to 1150 and just as their predecessors did they were rich in agriculture and architecture. They established new mythological deities and customs that were eventually adopted and transfused into the Aztec and Mesoamerican culture. They built new monuments and renovated old ones all which praised their deities. The Toltecs had various disputes with other tribes in the Yucatan peninsula and eventually lost control of Cholula and Tula by around 1200 AD. 

The Aztecs

One of the best known Mesoamerican civilizations were the Aztecs who thrived from 1300 to the conquest of the Spanish in 1521. They were based in central Mexico, mostly at their capital city of Tenochtitlan (which is now modern day Mexico City). Their empire consisted of three major city states within the Valley of Mexico; Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. While they established their own empire, they took on many of the customs and religions of other Mesoamerican tribes such as the Toltecs. Unlike previous tribes however, they were a conquering people who defeated many neighboring tribes within the Basin of Mexico. By 1427 the Aztec Triple Alliance had become the greatest military power during the Mesoamerican age. 

The Empire reached it's peak in 1519 where it's territory spanned from coast to coast into parts of Guatemala. This powerful civilization was united by military conquest, trade, and marriage alliances. Smaller city-states were forced to pay taxes to the high king known as the Tlatoani. One of the greatest of these rulers was Montezuma I (1440-1469) who expanded territory, established legal codes, and initiated many new buildings and temples to the gods. The Aztecs were rich in agriculture, crafts, trade, art, writing, and religion. Their capital city of Tenochtitlan became a booming urban center of approx 700,000 residents with impressive buildings such as the Temple Mayor. However the Aztecs also had a dark savage side just as their predecessors and practiced sacrifice and cannibalism as offerings to the gods. 

By 1519 however the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes set sail from Cuba to arrive on the coast of Vercruz. With an intent to colonize territory, plunder gold, and convert the indigenous tribes to Christianity there was no question Cortes was an invader. Little by little he colonized regions, some peacefully and some violently until he came to the heart of the Aztec Empire. In Cholula he massacred 6000 Aztec warriors before continuing his march on Tenochtitlan. The ruler of the Aztecs, Montezuma II decided to welcome Cortes into the city, hoping for a peaceful resolution. However this diplomacy was short-lived due to religious differences and ongoing uprisings against the Spanish invaders. 

By 1520 however the tensions between the Aztecs and Spanish finally boiled over and the Spanish massacred and lay siege to the city of Tenochtitlan. Montezuma was killed mysteriously during the various engagements that followed (either by Spaniards, by his own people. or by suicide). His predecessor, Cuauhtémoc put up a fierce resistance however ultimately they were no match to the superior Spanish weapons. By 1521 the city had fallen and Cortes replaced all idols with Christian monuments. Soon after the city was renamed Mexico City, and the Aztecs (and all other Mesoamerican tribes) were assimilated into Spanish society.      

Mythological Deities

• 
  Huitzilopochtli: Father of the Aztecs. His name means Hummingbird of the left. He is the patron god who guided the Aztecs to build the city of Technotitlin and the great Templo Mayor pyramid. 
  
• Itzamna: The most important god of the Mayans, he was the creator, and the ruler of day and night. He taught the Mayans how to grow Maize and to use calendars and medicine. 
• Tlaloc: God of the rain and storms worshiped by the Olmecs, Mayans, and the Aztecs. 
• Tonatiuh: Aztec god of the sun. However the Aztecs believed he required blood worship and hence they performed sacrifices in his name. 
• Chaac: Was the Mayan rain god, popular throughout the Yucatan region. 
• Tezcatlipoca: God of night, death, the cold, and wicked forces. His name meant Smoking Mirror.
• Chalchiuhtlicue: Goddess of running water, the rivers, and the seas. She was also the patron of childbirth.
• Centeotl: God of Maize and the crops. This god was worshiped by the Olmes, Mayans, and the Aztecs. 
• Quetzalcoatl (or also known as Kukulkan): The feathered serpent who served as the god of knowledge and wisdom for the Aztecs and the Mayans. 
• Xipe Totec: God of fertility and sacrifice. 

Most Iconic Landmarks

• 
  San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan Colossal heads: Built by the Olmec people from 1400-900 BC. This is one of the oldest sites of Mesoamerican archeology.
• Great Pyramid of La Venta: Built by the Olmecs in 1800BC, it underwent various formations up until 200 AD. 
• High Temple of Lamanai: was built in 1600 BC by the Mayans located in Belize.
• Xunantunich: Mayan pyramid built known as the Maiden of the Rock was believed to have been built in 1000 BC in Belize. 
• El Mirador: Was a Mayan viewpoint and settlement built around 600 BC, located in El Peten, Guatemala.
• Uaxactun: Sacred place of the Mayans, the Temple of the Masks was built in the Peten Basin of Guatemala in 400 BC. 
• Tikal: One of the more iconic structures and 2nd tallest was built by the Mayans in the Peten Basin of Guatemala in 300 BC.
• Monte Alban: Was an important platform and center for the Zapotec people established in 500 BC in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico.
• Pyramid of the Sun: Was built by the Teotihuacanos as far back as 200 BC in the capital city of Teotihuacan. The building was later renovated by the Toltecs and Aztecs and stood an impressive 720 feet.  
  
• Pyramid of the Moon: Was built by the Teotihuacanos in 150 BC adjacent to the Pyramid of the Sun in what is referred to as the Avenue of the Dead.
• Guachimontones: Built by the Teuchitlan culture in the state of Jalisco 300 BC. The structure is a grass pyramid of layers referred to as La Iguana.
• Palenque: Is a Mayan city-state of various temples, pyramids, and statues built from 226 BC to 799 AD located in the region of Chiapas, Mexico.
  
• Xochicalco: Another Mayan pyramid structure found in the state of Morelos, it was first occupied in 200 BC. 
• 
  Uxmal: Home to the iconic Pyramid of the Magician, that was built between 700-1000 AD. The Mayan structure stands at 131 feet overlooking the Yucatan Peninsula. 
• Chichen Itza: One of the most famous Mayan structures, El Castillo temple was built in 600-750 standing at an impressive 181 feet. The temple was dedicated to their god of Wisdom, Kukulkan.
• Mayapan: Another site of the Mayans from 1200-1440, with a large temple pyramid also dedicated to Kukulkan.
• El Tajin: Named after the Totnac Rain God, this site in Veracruz flourished from 600 to 1200 AD. It consists of a series of temples, pyramids, palaces, and ballcourts. 
• Templo Mayor: Was the central temple of the Aztecs erected in Tenochititlan in 1375 and was dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochti and Tlaloc. It once stood at 262 feet towering over the capital city of the Aztecs. Today however it stands in ruins, replaced by the iconic Zocalo main plaza square of Mexico City.     

Contributions

The Mesoamerican cultures were a cradle of life in the western hemisphere and created many societal contributions that were eventually adopted by the Spanish and European peoples. Here is a list of some of their impressive contributions to the historical development of mankind;

• 
  Writing System: The Olmecs were the first to create a writing system in the Americas through a series of symbols. 
• Calendar: The Mesoamericans created groundbreaking calender system, based on lunar and solar cycles in accordance with their agriculture cycles. They also perfected the study and prediction of astronomy.
  
• Agriculture: The Mesoamericans were blessed with great soil and temperatures to produce many varieties of new crops such as maize, beans, and peppers that were later shared with the world.
• Architecture: Inspired by their polytheistic religion, they built many impressive monuments and temples on par with that of ancient Egypt. 
• Mathematics: They used a system of bars and dots to represent numbers and helped establish the concept of zero as a numeric value.
• Ulama ballgame: The Mesoamericans created a ceremonial sport played in ballcourts where players would use their hips to hit a ball into a ring.     
• Arts and Crafts: The arts and crafts of the ancient Mesoamericans are still admired and incorporated today in everyday Mexican culture.