Historical Study of Mexico

I've decided to expand on my Mesoamerican phase into an overall Mexican appreciation phase. This is surprisingly my first ever full emersion into Mexican history and culture. Furthermore I intend for this phase to go beyond Mexico into a full on summer of Latin culture, leading up to our big trip to Colombia in October. It's funny though how these phases of mine, sometimes don't go to plan. For example I intended to kick off a Japanese phase following my Cold War studies, but instead got diverted by a space phase and now a Mexican phase. I'm sure I'll get to the Japanese phase later on. I just love cultural and historical phases that keep me learning and experiencing new things. 

So as I touched on in my previous post regarding the history of Mesoamerica this fascination is brought on by our trip to Cancun a few weeks ago. I described how that was only my 2nd trip to Mexico, but I am already quite familiar with their culture. I have had many Mexican friends and associates throughout my life and find them to be a friendly people. I especially enjoy their music, food, and drinks (as I think most Americans do). But surprisingly I don't know much on their history and have yet to make a deep dive into the topic. I believe it is broken up ultimately into three phases; the Mesoamericans, the Spanish colonial period, and their independence. 

As I usually do I'll write a separate post following this one that focuses primarily on Mexican culture. This post will lay the foundation of Mexico's historical story. I'm going to continue where I left off in my last post on Mesoamerica and pickup the timeline at the Spanish conquest of the 1500s. This was a period of cultural and religious assimilation where Catholicism became the new standard. It was not until the 1800s that the Mexican people established their own identity under the leadership of famous revolutionaries Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. And despite that independence they continued to be at odds against their northern neighbor the United States up until present day. So I want to better understand the key periods, conflicts, and leaders of Mexican history. 

New Spain

Following the fall of the Aztec Empire in 1521 the Spanish conqueror Hernan Cortes renamed the colony as New Spain and the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan became Mexico City. This new kingdom stretched from the North American territory of Florida, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California; most of Central America, the Caribbean islands, and parts of South America. The capital city of the Spanish conquest became Mexico City, where all trade and expeditions into Latin America came from. The native indigenous were quickly subdued into slave labor and Spanish immigrants arrived to cash in on the labor force as well as the rich silver and resources to mine.

However the Spanish conquerors continued to face opposition from the native Mesoamericans for the next 100 years, notably in Mayan regions and from the Chichimeca Confederation. Soon after however a new cultural society was established that mixed European settlers with native Mesoamericans. Government and social classes were established that placed Spanish settlers at the highest positions, criollos (Spanish born in Mexico) at the 2nd highest, Mestizos (mixed of Spanish and Native heritage) at the 3rd highest, and of course the natives at the bottom class. While the location was booming with economic resource, it's entire purpose was to support the Spanish Empire, therefore it's true potential was limited.

Despite this terrible conquest, Mexico became the center of a new Spanish renaissance in the Americas, that brought on a fusion of European and native customs. The first school, university, and printing press of the Americas were established to help encourage education. Juana Ines de la Cruz became the first famous writer born in colonial Mexico. Other significant works of architecture, cathedrals, monuments, and colonial forts were constructed in cities such as Mexico City, Peubla, Queretaro, and Zacatecas. The iconic Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City began construction in 1573 at the main town square known as Zocalo, which was the former central plaza of Tenochtitlan. The Catholic church was built in phases and finally completed in 1813 in Gothic fashion. 

Also from this cultural fusion came new cultural customs such as the production of tequila, Mexican cuisine, rancheros, and the music and dance of the mariachi and jarabe. By the early 1800s the natives and Spanish born Criollos grew in united strength to oppose the Spanish Imperial power. This was a similar pattern that took place in the United States in the late 1700s, as well as throughout most of Latin America during the 1800s. The American inhabitants had simply outgrown their foreign European conquerors. 

Independence Movement

The revolutionary ideals within Mexico were no doubt inspired by the events in America and France at the end of the 1700s. Miguel Hidalgo was a professor and Catholic priest inspired by ideals from the Enlightenment he became the voice and leader of this revolution. The situation boiled over during the Peninsula War (1807-1814), where Spain was defeated by Napoleon's French Army. A new coalition within New Spain emerged uniting influential conservatives with Mexican insurgents. The revolution got started in September of 1810 when Miguel Hidalgo met with military leaders Ignacio Allende and Juan Aldama to give a public call to arms against the Spanish, now known as the Cry of Dolores. Shortly after the Mexican insurgents stormed the royalist outpost in Guanajuato to begin the war.

The Spanish Royal army responded a few months later to this insurgency at the Battle of Calderon Bridge in January of 1811. Despite their greater numbers they were no match for the advanced Spanish military tactics and were routed in the battle. The insurgent's leader Miguel Hidalgo, Ignacio Allende, and Juan Aldama were later captured and executed. The insurgency died down for a little after this but then reorganized under the leadership of the Catholic priest Jose Maria Morelos. The insurgents achieved notable victories in the southern port of Acapulco, Veracruz, and Oaxaca. Morelos was chosen as the supreme commander, that helped establish the official Mexican declaration of independence and a congress in November of 1813. Morelos was later defeated in a series of battles at Valladolid and executed in 1815.

From there the insurgent leadership passed to Vicente Guerrero who had been conducting successful guerilla campaigns in southern Mexico. He was aided by the military leadership of Guadalupe Victoria who had also achieved victories in the region of Puebla. However from 1816-1820 the main cities remained unscathed under royalist control, while the outer regions experienced continuous insurgency. That was until 1820 when the Mexican insurgents got a lucky break thanks to the Trienio Liberal revolution that occurred in Spain. In response to this change in Spanish government the royalist military commander, Agustin de Ilturbide switched sides to join the insurgents. This was a crushing blow to the royalist army and opened the doors for Mexican independence.

Augstin de Ilturbide negotiated with the insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero to create the Plan of Iguala in Feburary of 1821. Also known as the Plan of Three Guarantees it established the principles of Catholicism, independence from Spain, and equality for all races within Mexico. Thus came an end to the Mexican War of Independence. A new Mexican government and flag were established, known as the Mexican Empire. Under the leadership of Emperor Agustin I the monarchy was short lived and later dissolved and replaced by a republic in 1824. 

Insurgent leader Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of Mexico's republic in 1824. He was later succeeded by the insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero in 1829. During Guerrero's brief presidency he abolished slavery however was later overthrown just a few months into his presidency. He returned to the south to wage a civil war against President Anastasio Bustamente and his ally Nicolas Bravo. Guerrero achieved some success until he was captured in 1831 by an Italian merchant and handed over to the Mexican courts for execution. The Mexican republic then underwent various political shifts and was eventually replaced by a more conservative regime in 1835 that became known as the Centralist Republic of Mexico.

Conflicts with the United States

Since it's independence in 1821 the Mexican government was constantly ongoing civil internal conflict among it's military-political leaders known as caudillos. The president of the Centralist Republic therefore never had outright power, and it was rather divided among multiple prominent politicians. Furthermore their territory in the north began to whither beginning with Texas in 1832. This territory was sought after by American immigrants seeking to establish outposts for western trade, resource mining, and Native expulsion. They were mostly led by Stephen F. Austin who had received a settlement grant from the Mexican government. However it did not take long for Austin to bring on his American customs in opposition to Mexican law, most notably that of slavery.

After years of hostility within the region the Texas Revolution broke out in October of 1835 between Texan settlers and Mexican army soldiers at the Battle of Gonzales. A few months later Austin led his Texan milita to victory at the Siege of Bexar (present day San Antonio). However the Mexican Army responded with a full on siege at the Battle of the Alamo to reclaim the territory in March of 1836. As a result of this defeat some 440 Texan prisoners were later massacred at Goliad. The Texans were not finished however and under the leadership of Sam Houston with a war-cry to "Remember the Alamo" they achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of San Jacinto. The Republic of Texas was thus established in 1836, independent from Mexico, with stronger ties to the United States.

However the Mexican government refused to recognize the Republic of Texas, and conflicts continued well into the 1840s. That was until 1845 when the United States annexed Texas to become it's 28th state. Mexico was now not in conflict with Texas but with the entire United States over this region, which brought on the Mexican-American War in 1845. The conflict began with the Thornton Affair in April 1846, fought over contested territory along the Rio Grande, where the Mexican Army assaulted an American contingency. In response to this the United States declared war on Mexico a few days later in May of 1846.        

Under the leadership of Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Mexico began hostilities with a full on siege of Fort Texas but later withdrew after several days. US army general Stephen Kearny then launched a military campaign into New Mexico territory to capture the regions of New Mexico and California. Kearney was able to capture Santa Fe in August without a shot fired and established a new American government to continue the war. From here the American army pushed further west into California also without much resistance and captured southern California by January of 1847. 

The Mexican theater put up much more of a fight against American general Zachary Taylor. The Battle of Monterrey was hard fought by both sides, but victory achieved by the Americans. However the subsequent Battle of Buena Vista in February of 1847 was more of a Mexican victory. That success was short-lived however due to superior American weapons and tactics. Furthermore indigenous uprisings supported by the Americans, sprang up all across Mexican territory most notably the Navajos and the Mayans. The American Siege of Veracruz in March of 1847 opened the doors for their full assault on Mexico City. 

American General Winfield Scott's campaign to Mexico City was accompanied by notable future military men Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, George Meade, Ulysses Grant, James Longstreet, and Stonewall Jackson. They achieved another victory at the Battle of Cerro Gordo, easily marched thru Puebla, and then led a series of engagements at the Battle of Mexico in September of 1847. While the American army occupied Mexico City, there was debate among American politicians whether they should annex all of Mexican territory on par with their Manifest Destiny. However this notion was shot down by a proponent of racist politicians who did not want to adopt indigenous people into their nation.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February of 1848 and became a massive territory loss for Mexico. A new border was established along the Rio Grande, which gave the United States total control of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado (which were all eventually turned into states of America). Mexico fell into shambles after this defeat, with continued political disputes and a weakening financial economy. By 1854 Mexico's influential leader Santa Anna was forced into exile, which ultimately ushered in a new era of Mexican reform and government.

The Mexican Reformation

In 1854 a new series of liberal reforms known as the Plan of Ayutla were enacted which ousted the conservative leader Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. In 1857 President Ignacio Comonfort instituted a new liberal constitution which essentially gave the people more individual rights and freedom from the Catholic Church. This however was heavily opposed by the conservative factions and eventually led to a full scale civil war known as the Reform War from 1857-1861. The Most Excellent Benito Juarez succeeded Comonfort to successfully repel the Conservative insurgency led by conservative General Felix Zuloaga. 

While the Reform War ended with a liberal victory in 1861 it was rather short lived due to French Intervention by Napoleon III. This was mostly due to foreign debts that Mexico had owed to France, but also Napoleon's desire to re-establish a French Imperial presence in the Americas. The defeated Mexican conservative faction supported this French invasion that overthrew Mexico City by 1863. An Austrian archduke named Maximilian became the emperor of the newly established Mexican Empire (which was ultimately a French puppet state). Benito Juarez fled to the north, where he was able to continue the Republic fight and eventually gathered support from the United States after they finished their own Civil War in 1865. 

With support from the United States Juarez' republic government was able to repel the French occupation who were also facing conflicts back in Europe against Prussia. By 1867 the French were forced to leave Mexico, and Benito Juarez was reinstated as president of the Republic of Mexico. The Mexican Empire was disbanded and emperor Maximilian was executed. Benito Juarez remained president until his death in 1872 and is regarded as one of the greatest of Mexican presidents for his resilience in the face of civil conflict and foreign intervention. 

The Porfiriato

In 1876 the liberal general Porfirio Diaz led a coup known as the Plan of Tuxtepec which established a new dictatorship over Mexico known as the Porfiriato. Despite his unjust rise to power, Porfirio established good relations with the prominent leaders of Mexico as well as the foreign powers of the United States and Great Britain. A new age of progress and industrialization boomed throughout Mexico not felt since their defeat by the Americans in 1848. Porfiriato ruled with an iron fist, creating a secret police throughout the rural regions and fixing each election so that he won.  

Porfirio's dictatorship was one of tight control but also major progress for the nation of Mexico. This was due to his philosophy of science and technology over the principles of religion and the Catholic church. During this industrial boom, the Mexican economy also began to grow, and just as with the United States or Europe this free market established a great gap between the wealthy titans and the majority of laborers. It was only a matter of time before the religious peasants, laborers, and socialist ideals organized to disrupt his 35 year reign of capitalism. 

Mexican Revolution

Despite much unhappiness from the laborers during the Porfiriato there really wasn't much organized opposition until the election of 1910. This was brought about when Porfirio stole another election, and his opposition Francisco Madero called for an armed uprising. As a prominent landowner and businessman, Madero was able to rally many laborers to his cause. Within a year there were numerous uprisings against the Federal army. By May of 1911, Diaz abdicated his leadership and went into exile so that Madero could assume the office of presidency. This was the first phase of the revolution and was fairly a non-violent one, bringing and end to the 35 year Porfiriato dictatorship.

The presidency of Madero was shrouded with conflict however as the peasants felt abandoned and soon began to demand land led by the famous Emiliano Zapata. Meanwhile President Madero had a second group of enemies, loyalists to Porfirio Diaz, who waged a coup in February of 1913. The coup was led by General Victoriano Huerta with the support of the United States and was a bloody conflict referred to as the Ten Tragic Days. President Madero was eventually captured and murdered and the Porifiristas rebels took back the government. General Huerta became president, who was at first on Madero's side then switched to join the rebels. However this presidency was also short-lived due to increasing victories from Zapata's rebels.

By 1913 rebel leader Francisco Pancho Villa joined forced with Zapata to wage civil war against President Huerta. They were also supported by the prominent governor Venustiano Carranza who established a Constitutionalist Army. Despite passing military conscription laws, Huerta quickly suffered defeats by Zapata's forces, as well as a crushing occupation in Veracruz by the United States. By July of 1914 Huerta was forced to resign his presidency and the federal army was disbanded. This led to a brief interbellum period in which Carranza could not come to terms with Pancho Villa and Zapata, and so the war took on another phase. Villa and Zapata formed the Conventiontist army to oppose the Constitutionalist army. 

The Constitutionalists achieved a key victory at the Battle of Celaya in 1915 which further empowered Carranza's grip on the government. However Villa and Zapata continued their uprisings against Carranza's power as well as the region of New Mexico. Carranza was able to enlist support from the US, after sharing the Zimmermann Telegram with them (Germany's plot to lure Mexico into the WWI conflict). Shortly after this, the Constitution of 1917 was adopted which made Carranza president and appealed the Conventionists' demands for land and social rights. Despite this Zapata and Villa continued to oppose the Constitutionalist government. Zapata was eventually assassinated in April of 1919 and Pancho Villa assassinated in 1923. Despite this however both Zapata and Villa became glorified as heroes of the people for establishing rights for the lower classes in the Constitution of 1917. 

In the election of 1920 Carranza attempted to select a puppet leader, however he was opposed by prominent generals. Carranza was eventually ran out of town and murdered, and the government passed on to various generals such as Adolfo de la Huerta, Alvaro Obregon, and Plutarco Elias Calles. With the deaths of Carranza, Emiliano Zapata, and Pancho Villa the revolution withered away. The newly formed constitutional government (established in the Constitution of 1917) has held strong to this day. It puts a great emphasis on social rights and a centralized government free from the Catholic Church. Ever since the revolution Mexico has continued to improve it's economy as well as it's relation with it's mighty northern neighbor, the United States.