Historical Study: The Holy Roman Empire

So carrying on with my study of medieval Bohemia, I'd now like to expand to the history of Central Europe controlled by the Holy Roman Empire. Bohemia was after all not it's own independent kingdom, yet rather a vassal within the Holy Roman Empire. But what exactly was the Holy Roman Empire? I've heard the name since I can remember but hardly understood it's structure. In recent studies I have come to find that it's name is quite misleading. Instead of an Empire it was more-so a union of kingdoms consisting of Germany, Italy, Bohemia, and Burgundy. Therefore it was not a single sovereignty like France, England, the Byzantine, or the Ottoman Empire. It was more so an alliance of kingdoms, on par with NATO or the European Union of modern age.

The 2nd part of it's name that is rather debatable is the association as a Roman Empire. Since the fall of Rome in 500 AD, Constantine essentially relocated their government to the Byzantine Empire. It became a holy nation based out of Constantinople and had the blessing of the Vatican as the true successors of the Roman Empire. This was rather undisputed for nearly 500 years until Charlemagne was crowned empire by the pope in 800 AD. This was mostly due to political and power shifts, where the Vatican had somewhat lost favor with the Byzantines. So for nearly 700 years there were essentially two emperors in Europe between the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. 

This problem with two Roman emperors, grew into political and theological differences that eventually led to the Great Schism of 1054. By this point Constantinople had established a new form of Orthodox Church in the east. Naturally the Vatican became to side with the western Holy Roman Empire, and even sent crusaders to briefly sack Constantinople in 1204. By this point however the Byzantine Empire was crumbling not so much due to political disputes with the Vatican, yet rather military conquest from the Ottoman Empire. This essentially allowed the Holy Roman Empire to arise as the undisputed imperial realm of the Catholic Church. It was primarily based in Germany, and could be considered as their first Reich (Empire). 

So while this is a study of the Holy Roman Empire it will also be a study of Central Europe primarily Germany, Austria, and Czechia. I've written about those nations various times now (see Austrian History, German History, Bohemian History) but have yet to focus on their medieval alliance that was the Holy Roman Empire. Also worth pointing out, that the Holy Roman Empire later became synonymous with the Habsburg Dynasty. By the 1500s it's almost fair to say that the Holy Roman Empire was essentially the network of the Habsburg royalty and monarchs throughout Europe (primarily located in Austria).  It also would be fair to consider the Holy Roman Empire a German Empire from 800 to 1500, and then an Austrian one from 1500-1800. 

Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire (800-919)

The Germanic barbarians played a crucial role in the collapse of the Roman Empire. They consisted of the Visigoths, the Vandals, the Ostrogoths, and the Franks. The Franks eventually became the most powerful of the Germanic tribes under Clovis I. He united many of the Germanic tribes and converted them to Catholicism. This Frankish Kingdom run by the Merovingian dynasty spread from France, Belgium, Netherlands, and into Germany from 481 to 751 AD. This dynasty came to an abrupt end in 751 when the pope interceded by electing a new king, Pepin the Short of the Carolingian dynasty. In return Pepin helped establish the Papal States, and supported the Vatican's divine right over kings. 

This bond between the Franks and the Catholic church was further strengthened when Pepin's son Charlemagne became king in 768. He initiated a successful military campaign throughout Central Europe defeating the Saxons, the Lombards, and the Avars. By 800 AD he had won the total support from the Catholic Church when they crowned him as emperor on Christmas Day. This was a major slap in the face of the Byzantine Empire, who before was seen as the true imperial seat of the church. This marked the beginning of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire (which is also seen as a pre-cursor to the Holy Roman Empire). 

Their capital city was located in Aachen (on the border of Belgium and Germany) where they underwent a medieval renaissance during the 800-900s. This was arguably the first major renaissance to occur during the dark ages of Europe after the fall of Rome. This period brought on major advancements in Catholic theology, the arts, and architecture. It also reformed the practice of education, handwriting, and history in the Latin language. Much of the style of manuscript text as we know it today was based off of this Carolingian Miniscule design. The architectural icon of this new age was the Palatine Chapel.  

Otto the Great and the Formation of the German Empire (919-1050)

By the mid 800s the Renaissance began to cool as a new civil dispute emerged throughout the Carolingian Empire over the crown. This essentially led to the breakup of Western Francia (the Kingdom of France) and Eastern Francia in 843 in the Treaty of Verdun. The Carolingian Empire was now made up of Eastern Francia in the region of Germany, however were not as strong as before. During the early 900s they suffered continuous raider assaults from the Vikings in the North and the Magyars in the east. The division among the German nobles throughout Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia, Saxony, and Lotharingia continued for some time, until Otto the Great came to power in 936 AD.

Otto the Great quickly ruled with a military agenda, squashing political rebellions from within. He was eventually able to unify all the German nobles and unite against their enemies at the borders, primarily the Hungarian Magyars. Otto achieved a monumental victory at the Battle of Lechfield in 955 AD, which saw him as the new savior of Christianity against the pagan hoards of the east. This finally marked some stability for East Francia where Otto had now ushered in a new era of supremacy in central Europe. He further strengthened his ties with the Papal states, by intervening on a dispute with local Italian enemies. The pope showed his gratitude by crowning Otto as emperor in the Palatine Chapel of Aachen. This is often seen as the official beginning of the Holy Roman Empire which was made up of Germany and northern Italy. 

Similar to Charlemagne's earlier reign, Otto's reign brought on another wave of cultural flourishment, known as the Ottonian Renaissance. This was primarily an effort to glorify the newly established Holy Roman Empire as a kingdom of god, and not barbaric pagans. They saw themselves as the true descendants to Caesar's Rome with divine rights. This message was carried across new forms of literature, theology, the arts, architecture, and even theatrical plays. There was even a brief alliance with the Byzantine Empire in 972 AD when Otto II married the Byzantine princess, Theophanu. This also brought a unique merge of eastern and western cultures that emphasized gold and luxury.  

The Salian Dynasty and the Investiture Controversy (1024-1125)

By 1024 the Ottonian dynasty came to an end with the death of Saint Henry II who did not have an heir. The crown went to Conrad II from the House of Salian which began a new era within the Holy Roman Empire. Conrad II strengthened the political union of the Empire in 1034 by inheriting the Kingdom of Burgundy. His son Henry III famously interceded on a papal dispute in 1046 where there were 3 different popes at once. He used the imperial muscle of the Holy Roman Empire to appoint his own German Pope Clement II. This marked a sudden shift of power where the Vatican had now become the puppet of the Holy Roman Empire (instead of the other way around). 

This change in dynamic was short-lived however when Pope Gregory VII turned on the authority of Henry IV. His claim was that the state should not have divine rights to appoint popes, bishops, and priests. This led to a 50 year debate among the church and the Holy Roman Empire known as the Investiture Controversary. Henry IV was briefly excommunicated by the church and forced to make a walk of shame in 1077 known as the Walk to Canossa. The dispute finally came to an end in 1122 with the Concordat of Worms that agreed in a secular separation between the church and state. This resolution once again restored the influence of the Catholic Church, and removed some of the emperor's claimed sacred status.  

The Hohenstaufen Dynasty (1125-1250)

Henry V was able to restore good relations with the papal states, however once again he was left without an heir which brought an end to the Salian Dynasty. This once again created a power vacuum throughout the Holy Roman Empire where there were disputing claims by the Hohenstaufen and Welf dynasties. During this civil fighting the Empire lost support from the pope. The situation was finally restored to balance when Frederick Barbarossa from the Hohenstaufen Dynasty made peace with the Welfs. He thus became the undisputed emperor in 1152 and is often regarded as one of the greatest of the Holy Roman Empires. He reigned for 30 years reestablishing the glory and might of the Holy Roman Empire. 

Prior to Frederick Barbarossa the realm was just referred to as the Roman Empire, however it was Frederick who added the word "Holy" to it. This once again gave them sacred status but also made them quite different from the original Roman Empire. During his reign Frederick I re-enacted Ancient Roman Law (instead of Trail by Combat) and also strengthened his control over Italy by conquering the city of Milan. Barbarossa was often seen as a true crusader and helped organize the Third Crusade on Jerusalem with Philip Augustus (King of France) and Richard the Lionheart (King of England). At the age of 70 Barbarossa achieved a significant victory against the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Iconium in 1190. He however later died by mysteriously drowning in the Saleph River and the Crusader campaign to recapture Jerusalem was lost. However the Teutonic Knights were established to continue Barbarossa's Christian Crusade.

During the 1100-1200s a wave of German migration occurred, known as the Ostsiedlung where Germans began to inhabit the eastern region of Poland and Czechia (known as Silesia and Bohemia). The Kingdom of Bohemia officially became the 4th allied kingdom of the Holy Roman Empire in 1158 when an agreement was reached between Barbarossa and King Vladislaus II. The Hohenstaufen Dynasty oversaw a third renaissance throughout the Holy Roman Empire under the reigns of Frederick Barbarossa and his son Frederick II. Science, law, and logic were put at the forefront of the empire's agenda. Famous German composers such as Hildegard von Bingen and Walther von der Vogelweide rose to such prominence they even advised the emperor. During his reign the iconic Cologne Cathedral broke ground in 1248. Frederick II also continued his father's religious crusade and won back Jerusalem thru peaceful diplomacy with the Muslims. This of course infuriated the Papal States and reignited tension between the two authorities. 

The Interregnum and the Golden Bull (1250-1438)

After the death of Frederick II in 1250, the party of the 11th century renaissance came to an abrupt stop without a true heir to carry on. To make matters worse the papacy still had resentment towards the Hohenstaufen Dynasty. The death of Frederick II brought an end to the Hohenstaufen Dynasty and led to a period of civil turmoil within the Holy Roman Empire known as the Interregnum. Warlords, raiders, and bandits once again took hold throughout the kingdom for nearly 60 years. Without proper unification independent cities arose such as Lubeck, Hamburg, and Cologne. These cities even created an alliance known as the Hanseatic League to protect their trade from piracy. During this time the Holy Roman Empire became a de-facto realm in the background, where kingdoms and cities took own more independent roles. 

This all changed however in 1356 when the great Charles IV took to the helm and passed the Golden Bull. This was an effort to reunify and reformat the Holy Roman Empire. Charles IV came from the house of Luxembourg in Bohemia and rose to imperial power thru political and diplomatic ties. Charles true rise to prominence was during the difficult period of the Hundred Years War and the Black Death. He strengthened Bohemia's resolve and turned the city of Prague into a flourishing capital of culture and education. He eventually won back favor with the Papacy and was crowned King of Bohemia and Germany in 1346 and then became the undisputed Holy Roman Emperor in 1355. 

Charles IV not only initiated a golden age of flourishment in Bohemia, but also made significant reforms to the Holy Roman Empire. This was enacted in his Golden Bull of 1356 which became the new constitution of the Empire. In an effort to strengthen the empire's unity thru balance, he established a circle of seven electors to chose the Emperor. The three electors of the church were from Mainz, Trier, and Cologne. While the four secular electors were from Bohemia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saxony, and Bradenburg. He also once again stripped some of the pope's authority in choosing this king of kings, as it was now to be a democratic process.             

Rise of the Habsburgs (1438-1517)

The Holy Roman Empire was once again strong throughout the late 1300s with the full support of the church. However following the death of Charles IV, a string of events began to crack away at it's solid facade. The Catholic Church was once again facing another Schism of multiple popes based out of Avignon and Rome. Furthermore a new radical Protestant movement emerged throughout Bohemia led by the theologian Jan Hus. To make matters even more chaotic there was a civil dispute among brothers Wenceslaus and Sigismund for the crown of Bohemia. Sigismund eventually took control of the Holy Roman Empire in 1433, but he continuously faced issues with the Hussite Revolution as well as Ottoman advances in Hungary. Despite some bold visions and victories, Sigismund was unable to continue the Luxembourg Dynasty after his death in 1437.

The great Habsburg dynasty had slowly been making it's rise throughout the Holy Roman Empire by the mid 1200s. Rudolf I became the first Habsburg King of the Germans during the Interregnum period from 1273 to 1291. The House of Habsburg maintained control of the kingdom of Germany for nearly 40 years until the House of Luxembourg took over. However when Sigismund died without an heir, the Luxembourg dynasty came to abrupt end and the Habsburgs once again swept in. Frederick III assumed the title of Holy Roman Empire in 1452 to oversee the longest reigns of it's history at 53 years. It also happened to be at the same time that Johannes' Guttenberg invented the printing press out of Mainz which became a game-changer. 

In his 53-year reign Frederick III's agenda was mostly one of patience and diplomatic dealings. While he didn't so much strengthen the geographical or economic might of the Holy Roman Empire, he did significantly improve the royal network of the Habsburg dynasty. He did this by orchestrating various key marriages throughout Europe, most notably of his son Maximillian with the Princess of Burgundy. This royal marriage network spanned far throughout Europe into Austria, Germany, Portugal, and even the lowlands of Netherlands and Belgium. By this time Vienna, Austria had now become the center of the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburg dynasty had become the most powerful in Europe.

Renaissance and Protestant Reformation (1517-1556)

Frederick III's son Maximillian continued his father's ambition for the family empire when he took to the throne in 1508 at the height of Europe's greatest Renaissance. He established a foothold into Spain's monarchy, which had just recently discovered the new world. Maximillian also used the new invention of the printing press to his advantage to establish propaganda as well as new written laws. He established a new modern government known as the Reichstag in 1495 with a new system of taxes and supreme court. The Holy Roman Empire made various artistic and scientific contributions during this northern renaissance age. This consisted of Guttenberg's printing press, as well as the groundbreaking astronomical theory from Nicolas Copernicus and Johannes Keppler. The artist Albrecht Durer from Nuremberg became famous for his groundbreaking printing techniques. 

This scientific revolution that had taken a hold throughout Europe, certainly had it's critics. Most famous of them all was the German priest Martin Luther from the town of Eisleben in Saxony. Luther carried on the earlier movement of Jan Hus by boldly speaking against the Catholic Church. He was primarily targeting it's corruption, and looser morals brought on by the Renaissance and scientific revolution. His movement quickly gained steam and support throughout the Holy Roman Empire and across all of Europe. By 1517 his Protestant Reformation was in full effect and even began to divide some of the Holy Roman Empire from within. Maximillian's son Charles V became emperor in 1519 and declared Luther an outlaw in 1521 with the full support of the Catholic Church. 

This movement quickly began to fracture the empire from within and led to various peasant uprisings who supported Luther's ideology. The German Peasants War of 1524-1525 was the most notable of these revolts that led to the execution of nearly 100,000 Germans. In response to this a new political alliance arose within Germany known as the Schmalkaldic League which fully sought to free themselves from the Catholic persecution. The movement also spread into the Netherlands under Calvinism and even into England (just so Henry VIII could officially divorce his wife). Many within this Protestant Reformation began to see the Catholic Church as the enemy. Charles V eventually had to cease his fight against these Protestant heretics due to brewing conflicts with the French and Ottoman. The Peace of Augsburg was passed in 1555 to allow both Catholicism and Luthernism throughout Germany and the Holy Roman Empire.

The Spanish Influence and the Thirty Years War (1556-1648)

Following his Peace of Augsburg, Charles V was simply burnt out due to his dispute with Protestant heretics, the Kingdom of France, and the Ottoman advances under Sulieman the Magnificent. He thus abdicated the throne in 1556 by which the empire was split into two Habsburg monarchs; the Spanish Kingdom under King Philip II which gained influence over Netherlands and the South American colonies, while the Austrian Habsburgs took control of the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. Spain became the new world power, while Ferdinand maintained stability in the Central Europe thru it's political alliances (primarily that of Spain).      

By the late 1500s into early 1600s the Protestant movement continued to gain traction through-out central Europe. When Ferdinand II was chosen as King of Bohemia, the Protestants knew he was a Catholic extremist and decided to act. The Protestant nobles famously committed an act of revolution by throwing out Catholic officials from the towers of Prague. This Defenestration of Prague is seen as the start of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) between Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire. This was one of the deadliest wars in human history, by which nearly 50% of the Holy Roman Empire population were killed. Also during this time were plagues, high crime rates, and witch hunts that added to the chaos of the region. 

It could be considered as the first major European World War since it began as an internal dispute and quickly snowballed into a balance of power among allies. It is also considered as one of the most significant religious wars between the Catholics and the Protestants. The war has two phases to it, beginning with the religious war from 1618-1635. The Hapsburg monarchy enlisted support from the Spanish Empire and the Catholic Church as they fought against a string of protestant states such as Bohemia, Sweden, Palatinate, Savoy, the Dutch Republic, Denmark, Norway, Prussia, and Saxony. Even the first phase came in various waves, where they conflict continued to escalate.

The conflict began from Bohemia, where Hussites and Protestants sought to break free from the Habsburg's Holy Roman Empire. However they were eventually defeated at the Battle of Cold Mountain in 1620. However King Christian IV of Denmark later decided to intervene in 1625 to rescue his fellow Lutherans against the Habsburgs. The Danish were also defeated in 1629 by the famed general of the Holy Roman Empire, Albrecht von Wallenstein. However at this point yet another Protestant ally emerged from Sweden under the leadership of king Gustavus Adolphus. Sweden began it's assault at the Battle of Breitenfield in 1631 and achieved the first major victory for the Protestants. Gustavus became a Swedish and Protestant hero for this, however died later at the Battle of Lutzen in 1632. Due to the loss of their king, the Swedish army was forced to repel their attack and called for a stalemate. The Protestants then suffered a devastating loss when the army of the Holy Roman Empire sacked Magdeburg and massacred roughly 20,000 civilians. 

In 1635 it seemed the alliance of German protestants were defeated and forced to sign the Peace of Prague. The Swedish army was forced to relinquish it's gained territory and retreat. However this is when the war takes a strange political turn. At the time the Swedish Empire was the strongest Protestant state, but they found themselves at a crossroads and made their appeal to the kingdom of France (who happened to be a proud Catholic state). If Sweden was forced to drop out of this fight, the Habsburg would become a total superpower across Europe (controlling Spain, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, and even Scandinavia). The French Cardinal Richelieu realized the significance of this war in terms of power and convinced King Louis XIII that France must face the imperial threat of the Hapsburg dynasty.

Thus the Thirty Years War entered a second phase in 1635 where France waged war on the Holy Roman Empire, allied with the Swedish Empire. Richelieu took total ownership of the French military strategy, quite a rare event in history. He coordinated a multi-front assault in the Netherlands, the eastern Rhine, Italy, and across the Pyrenees against Spain. The French army suffered early defeats primarily against Spain, who almost reached the capital of Paris. However the Swedish and French armies were finally able to sever the Spanish supply line into Italy and Netherlands. Spain had to then turn to it's navy to transport it's resources, which was heavily opposed by the Dutch Navy. By 1640 the mighty Spain began to further lose it's stronghold when both Portugal and Catalonia rebelled against their king. 

In 1643 the French army achieved a decisive victory against the Spanish army at the Battle of Rocroi. This essentially marked the end of the Spanish Empire and the golden age of the French Kingdom (under King Louis XIV aka the Sun King). With Spain defeated, the Holy Roman Empire found itself at a great loss and began to pursue peace. Sweden achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Jankau in 1645 in Bohemia but were unable to press their advantage further into the Rhineland and Saxony. By 1648 both sides came to terms at the Peace of Westphalia. Both the French and Swedish kingdoms emerged as new global powers, while the Spanish and Holy Roman Empire under the Hapsburgs got a harsh awakening. The Hasburgs managed to maintain control of their Holy Roman Empire, but from this point on it turned into a fragmented association of independent nations.  

Rivalry of Austria and Prussia (1648-1792)

The Habsburgs were able to sustain control of their Holy Roman Empire and continued to strengthen their resolve in Austria. Meanwhile Germany became a zone of independent states and nations that further began to distance themselves from the Austrian controlled empire. By this point it's almost fair to say that the Holy Roman Empire mostly consisted of an Austrian Kingdom and a loosely tied German Confederation. The Habsburgs however were still by no means ready to lose their stronghold on world affairs. They achieved a significant victory over their troublesome neighbors in the east during the Great Turkish War of 1683-1699. Thru this victory they were able to claim new territory in Hungary, Romania, and the Balkans. 

Ten years later they were once again drawn into a great global conflict with France over the Spanish Succession. After the 30 years war Spain had crumbled to become a puppet of France, and the Hapsburg were eager to reclaim this territory as theirs. This brought on another world war of European alliance vying for power from 1701-1714. Great Britain joined the fight on the side of the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to crush their main rivals of France and become the undisputed global power of the world. A settlement was eventually reached which allowed France to retain the Spanish monarchy, while Austria gained new territory in Italy and Netherlands. Great Britain walked away as the biggest winner while France and Austria had mostly depleted it's resources by this point.

Also by this time, the German kingdom of Prussia had emerged as a new dominant power in Central Europe. King Frederick I strengthened the Prussian finances, infrastructure, and increased the size of their army. After a reign of 30 years both Frederick I and Charles VI died in the same year in 1740, leaving a power vacuum in Central Europe. Frederick the Great had inherited a powerful army from his father and the Holy Roman Empire was essentially his for the taking. This lead to the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) between the Prussian Kingdom and the Holy Roman Empire under Empress Maria Theresa.  

Frederick the Great made the first move by striking on the territory of Silesia (Poland). Once again this lead to a domino effect of coalitions that once again vied for power in Europe. This time France and Spain joined with Prussia seeking to further weaken the Habsburg Dynasty. Britain continued to support the Habsburg's however seeking to check France's move for power. The Russian Empire had also begun to emerge as a global power at this time and joined the side of Austria. The war was mostly a stalemate. Prussia was able to retain their control of Silesia, while Austria was able to retain their control of the Holy Roman Empire. The tension between Austria and Prussia however would continue for another hundred years. 

Napoleon dismantles the Holy Roman Empire (1792-1806)

By the late 1700s the city of Vienna became the cultural capital of the world. It was most renown as the city of music bringing forth great Baroque and Classical composers such as Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. It was also a revolution of science and education on par with the Enlightenment. By this point the Habsburg Dynasty was constructing a new Austrian identity free from the Imperial Realm of the Holy Roman Empire. Joseph II (son of Maria Theresa) most notably became a patron of the arts and enlightenment throughout his imperial reign in 1765-1790. However these enlighten ideals brought hidden consequences with them which began in America and France.

The French Revolution completely changed the structure of order throughout Europe when the monarchy was completely eliminated. Joseph II was horrified to hear of this reign of terror, which resulted in the beheading of his cousin Marie Antoinette. Naturally all of the monarchy states such as Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia stood against this new dictatorship led by the brilliant general Napoleon. The Austrians faced the most crushing blow of all when they were decisively defeated by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. Considered Napoleon's greatest victory it brought a harsh end to the Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon was eventually defeated ten years later by the British however the damage was done for the Holy Roman Empire. 

After lasting for 1000 years, the Holy Roman Empire officially dissolved in 1806. The Habsburgs officially established their own Austrian Empire in 1804 which spanned from Austria into Hungary. Meanwhile Germany became a new Confederation of 39 states from 1815 to 1848. After the fall of Napoleon, Austria and Prussia continued to fight over the control of Germany, until finally Prussia emerged victorious in 1866. This brought about the dawn of the German Empire (The 2nd Reich) which quickly emerged once again as a world power. By the late 1800s into early 1900s the Austrian-Hungarian Empire had mostly become puppet allies of this new German power. Both nations shared one primary thing in common. They were once the core of the powerful Holy Roman Empire. 

 Four Kingdoms of the Empire 

• Kingdom of Germany (911-1806)
• Bavaria (Southern region)
• Saxony 
• Franconia 
• Swabia 
• Lorraine 
• Rhineland   
• Westphalia
• Thuringia 
• Palatinate
• Bradenburg (Became Prussia)
• Kingdom of Italy (962-1801)
  
• Lombard
• Piedmont 
• Emilia-Romagna 
• Liguria 
• Milan
• Genoa
• Florence
• Kingdom of Burgundy/Arles (1033-1806)
• Western Switzerland
• Franche-Comte
• Savoy
• Rhone valley
• Netherlands/Belgium
• 
  Kingdom of Bohemia (1198-1806)
• Czech lands
• Moravia
• Silesia 

Seven Electors of the Holy Roman Emperor

•  Archbishop of Mainz (Chancellor of Germany)
• Archbishop of Cologne (Chancellor of Italy)
• Archbishop of Trier (Chancellor of Burgundy)
  
• King of Bohemia (Czech lands)
• Count Palatine of the Rhine (western Germany)
• Duke of Saxony (east-central Germany)
• Margrave of Brandenburg (northeast of Germany. Future state of Prussia)

 Key Cities of the Holy Roman Empire

•  Aechan (Charlamagne capital from 800-814)
• Regensburg, Bavaria 
• Worms, Rhineland
• Mainz (seat of the archbishop)
• Arles (Capital of Burgundy)
• 
  Trier (seat of the archbishop)
• Nuremburg (Capital during Hohenstafuen dynasty)
• Prague (Capital of Bohemia during Charles IV)
• Vienna (Capital during Habsburg era)
• Milan (Flourishing Italian city-state)
  
• Genoa (Flourishing Italian city-state)
• Florence (Flourishing Italian city-state)
• Augsburg, Bavaria
• Cologne, Rhineland (seat of the archbishop)
• Hamburg (Leader of the Hanseatic League)
• Innsbruck, Austria (political center under Maximillian. Photo to the right)
• Magdeburg. Saxony
• Wroclaw (Silesia)
• Heidelberg (Seat of the Count of Palatine of the Rhine)
• Dresden (Seat of the Duke of Saxony)
• Berlin (Margrave of Brandenburg) 

The Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire

 CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY (Frankish Empire)

1. Charlemagne (800–814) – Carolingian – Aachen (Frankish)
2. Louis I (the Pious) (814–840) – Carolingian – Aachen
3. Lothair I (840–855) – Carolingian – Middle Francia / Aachen
4. Louis II (855–875) – Carolingian – Italy (Lombardy)
5. Charles II (the Bald) (875–877) – Carolingian – West Francia
6. Charles the Fat (881–888) – Carolingian – East Francia (Germany)

Transitional Shadow Kings

       7. Arnulf of Carinthia (896–899) – East Frankish
       8. Louis the Child (899–911) – East Frankish

OTTONIAN Dynasty

      9. Otto I (the Great) (962–973) – Saxony

     10. Otto II (973–983) – Saxony

     11. Otto III (983–1002) – Saxony

     12. Henry II (1002–1024) – Bavaria (Saxon by marriage)

 SALIAN DYNASTY (Franconian)

13. Conrad II (1024–1039) – Franconia
14. Henry III (1039–1056) – Franconia
15. Henry IV (1056–1106) – Franconia
16. Henry V (1106–1125) – Franconia

SUPPLANTING DYNASTIES (Lotharingian / Saxon Again)

17. Lothair II (Lothair III of Germany) (1125–1137) – Saxony/Lorraine
    
18. Conrad III (1138–1152) – Hohenstaufen (Swabia)

HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTY (Staufen Dynasty)

19. Frederick I Barbarossa (1155–1190) – Swabia
    
20. Henry VI (1191–1197) – Swabia/Sicily
21. Philip of Swabia (1198–1208) – Swabia
22. Otto IV (Welf Dynasty) (1209–1215) – Brunswick (Lower Saxony)
23. Frederick II (1220–1250) – Sicily / Swabia
24. Henry (VII) (co‑emperor) – Swabia

(Great Interregnum 1250–1273)

RESTORED EMPIRE — BEGINNING OF HABSBURG ERA

25. Rudolf I (1273–1291) – Habsburg/Austria
26. Adolf of Nassau (1292–1298) – Nassau (Germany)
    
    
    
27. Albert I (1298–1308) – Habsburg/Austria

LUXEMBOURG DYNASTY

28. Henry VII (1312–1313) – Luxembourg
29. Charles IV (1355–1378) – Bohemia (Prague)
30. Wenceslaus (1378–1400) – Bohemia
31. Sigismund (1410–1437) – Bohemia/Hungary

EARLY HABSBURG RISE (Second Habsburg Phase)

32. Albert II (1438–1439) – Austria/Bohemia/Hungary
33. Frederick III (1452–1493) – Austria
34. Maximilian I (1508–1519) – Austria

THE HABSBURG-SPANISH IMPERIAL PHASE

35. Charles V (1519–1556) – Spain/Netherlands/Austria
    

AUSTRIAN HABSBURGS — (1556–1806)

36. 
    Ferdinand I (1556–1564) – Austria/Bohemia/Hungary
37. Maximilian II (1564–1576) – Austria
38. Rudolf II (1576–1612) – Austria/Bohemia (Prague capital)
39. Matthias (1612–1619) – Austria
40. Ferdinand II (1619–1637) – Austria (Thirty Years’ War)
41. Ferdinand III (1637–1657) – Austria
42. Leopold I (1658–1705) – Austria
43. Joseph I (1705–1711) – Austria
44. Charles VI (1711–1740) – Austria
45. Charles VII (Wittelsbach) (1742–1745) – Bavaria (ONLY non-Habsburg in 300 years)
46. Francis I (1745–1765) – Austria (Habsburg‑Lorraine)
47. Joseph II (1765–1790) – Austria
48. Leopold II (1790–1792) – Austria
49. Francis II (1792–1806) – Austria
    

Historical Study: The Kingdom of Bohemia

The past month now I have pivoted westward from Romania into Czech history. I'm staying with the medieval era however with a focus on the Kingdom of Bohemia. This is actually my 2nd deep dive into Czech culture and history. I visited Czechia just four years ago, where my cousin Marc was working in Brno. I was so amazed by the beautiful city of Prague, and to this day would rank it among my favorite cities in the world. I of course made a deep dive into Czech culture during this time and wrote two posts (see Czech Culture and Study of Prague). That first phase was focused more-so on the city of Prague. This time I'd like to tackle the entire region of Czech, that was known as Bohemia from the 9th century until 1918. After WWI it became referred to as Czechoslovakia (1918-1939), the Nazi Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (1939-1945), back to Czechoslovakia (1945-1993), the split from Slovakia created the Czech Republic (1993-2016), and since 2016 we know it today simply as Czechia. 

This recent phase is inspired by the video game, Kingdom Come Deliverance which is set in the Kingdom of Bohemia 1403. This is actually quite an intriguing period in Czech and European history. After the glorious reign of Charles IV (1346-1378), his son Wenceslaus IV deals with the threat of Hungary led by Sigismund. Furthermore a new religious movement spreads throughout Bohemia, lead by the theologian Jan Hus. The game setting puts you in the midst of this very fascinating time that could be seen as a precursor to the Protestant Reformation. I've also accompanied this game with the book Tower of Fools written by the Polish author Andrzej Sapkowski (creator of the Witcher series). The book is also set in this medieval Bohemian setting a few years later during the Hussite Wars. I'll later of course have full reviews on the game and the book, but as per usual it enhances my full historical emersion. 

I've heard the word "Bohemia" since I came remember but I don't think I ever associated it as the historical region of Czechia. Instead I've thought of the word Bohemian as a way to describe a free-spirited hippy or a gypsy. This unconventional artistic lifestyle is the core message of the popular Queen song, Bohemian Rhapsody. This use of Bohemian as an adjective is hardly a connection to the proper Kingdom of Bohemia. The term began to identify gypsies in the 1800s, that were believed to have traveled from the Czech lands. But this is actually quite the stretch and the Kingdom of Bohemia leaned far more towards Christian fanaticism then unconventional lifestyles. It was once a true cultural power at the center of the Holy Roman Empire. 

The Moravian Empire (830-907)

I'd like to skip past the ancient roots and the Roman era of this region that was inhabited by Celtic tribes, and begin with the medieval era. Following the fall of the Roman Empire, a power vacuum took hold throughout most of Europe, which lead to the dark ages. While warring tribes of Germanic and Norse barbarians took hold on the western front. The Central European region became inhabited by migrating Slav tribes from the eastern lands of Belarus and Ukraine. By 830 AD, a new kingdom in this region emerged known as Moravia established by Mojmir (which inhabited the Czech lands of Bohemia and Moravia). Under King King Ratislav (1840-1870) the Moravian kingdom welcomed Christian missionaries such as Saint Cyril and Methodius. 

Prince Svatopluk oversaw a campaign of expansionism from 870 to 894 AD which stretched into Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, and Austria. He established the zenith of the Moravian Empire by which even the Vatican under Pope Stephen V recognized him as king by 885 AD. However following Svatopluk's death in 894 the kingdom fell into division which lead to foreign conquest primarily from Hungarian Magyar invasions. This lead to fragmentation of the Moravian Empire, which eventually lead to the emergence of Bohemia as it's own independent state. Borivoj from the Premyslid dynasty became the first founder of the duchy of Bohemia in 870 AD. Although it saw itself as an independent state it had already begun to align itself with the emerging Holy Roman Empire in the early 900s. 

The Duchy of Bohemia (870-1198)

By 870 AD, Borivoj established the city of Prague as his new Christian center for the Duchy of Bohemia. It was during this time that the iconic Prague Castle was first built, which was home to the Premyslid dynasty. Borivoj's grandson Wenceslaus became ruler in 921 and oversaw a period of peace and devout Christianization, charity, and piety. He built churches, chapels, and encouraged the spread of Christian missionaries throughout central Europe. He strengthened his political allies within Bohemia as well as German and Frankish Kings that made up the Holy Roman Empire. His righteous deeds brought him the title as Wenceslaus the Good, by which he would later be canonized as a saint and celebrated in the iconic Christmas Carol. 

However in 935 AD Wenceslaus was assassinated by his brother Boleslaus the Cruel seeking to claim the throne for himself. Boleslaus was not as devout a Christian as Wenceslaus and during his reign he focused more on political matters. He brought an end to the peace by fighting against the Hungarian Magyars while still keeping close allliance with the Holy Roman Empire. Despite his cruel nature he did continue to advance and develop the city of Prague and strengthen the Duchy of Bohemia. After his death in 972, his son Boleslaus II reigned for another 30 years overseeing Bohemia's stability and expansion while formally becoming a vassal state of the Holy Roman Empire. By 1198 AD Duke Ottokar manages to promote Bohemia's status from Duchy to Kingdom within the Holy Roman Empire. This essentially grants Bohemia greater political influence within Central Europe. 

The Kingdom of Bohemia (1198-1355)

In 1204 AD the Holy Roman Empire signed the Golden Bull of Sicily which officially recognized the Kingdom of Bohemia with approval from Pope Innocent III. Ottokar reigned for 30 years, then his son King Wenceslaus I continued the stability for another twenty years from 1230-1253. His son Ottokar II ushered in a golden era from 1253-1278 expanding territory into Austria. His ambition however got the better of him when he challenged Rudolf of Habsburg, King of Germany and lost at the Battle of the Marchfeld. This marked a sudden power shift in central Europe favoring the Germanic Habsburg dynasty over the Czech Premyslid dynasty.    

Despite the sudden powershift, Bohemia was still protected as a vassal of the Holy Roman Empire and thus not entirely conquered by the Habsburgs. King Wenceslaus II restored Bohemian stability from 1278 to 1305. His son Wenceslaus III inherited three kingdoms by marriage and title; Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland. In 1310 the House of Luxembourg came to power in Bohemia by marriage when John the Blind took to the throne. He reigned for 36 years and was a skilled warrior and political diplomat. He heroically died at the Battle of Crecy in 1346 fighting alongside the French during the Hundred Years War. Despite being blind for ten years, at the age of 50 he lead his army into battle. He refused to retreat as the English army advanced, and lead a final charge. He tied his horse's reigns along with his knights so that he would not get lost in battle. 

Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (1355-1378)

John's son Charles IV took to the reign of Bohemia in 1346 and ushered in Bohemia's strongest period. As king his first act was to strengthen the infrastructure of Prague by overseeing new building projects such as St. Vitus Cathedral, Charles University (one of the oldest universities in the world), the Karlstejn Castle, and the Charles Bridge over the Vltava River. Through diplomatic alliances and marriages he also became King of Germany, cooling the tension between the House of Luxembourg and Habsburg. Due to his strong alliances and kingdoms, he was elected as the Holy Roman Emperor in 1355 (the first Bohemian to hold the position). Naturally he established Prague as his new imperial capital in central Europe and Bohemia was once again at the center of global affairs. 

Charles IV strengthened Bohemia's future prospects in the Golden Bull of 1356 which rearranged the political structure of the Holy Roman Empire. This essentially created a balanced council of electors with solid partnership from the church. It also strengthened Bohemia's role and privileges within the Empire. He further enhanced Bohemian wealth thru the silver mines of Kutna Hora, which quickly became the second most important financial center in Bohemia after Prague. Throughout his reign he oversaw peace throughout central Europe stabilizing his diplomatic relations with Germany, the Czech nobles, the Papacy, and even the feisty Hungarians. Upon his death in 1478 he passed on a thriving kingdom to his son Wenceslaus IV, who unfortunately did not match his father's prominence.  

Rise of the Hussites Reformation (1370- 1434)

Now we come to the setting that I am especially emerged into thru KCD1 and the tower of Fools. Wenceslaus IV quickly loss favor with the Bohemian and German nobles, as someone who preferred recreational activities more-so than political affairs. He was quickly opposed by his own brother, King Sigismund of Hungary who led passionate crusades against the Ottomans. Despite losing at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, he established the Order of Dragon (whose most famous member happened to be Vlad the Impaler). By the early 1400s Sigismund had emerged as the driving force in Central Europe and became king of Germany in 1410, king of Bohemia in 1419, and Holy Roman Emperor by 1433.

During this sibling squabble there was an equally important religious movement occurring throughout the Czech lands. It was led by Jan Hus, a priest and theologian professor from Charles University in Prague. Jan spoke against the corruption of the Catholic Church that had turned to the business of salvation thru indulgences and simony. Not to mention nepotism within the Vatican offices, who also held various concubines on the side. Jan also preached in the common tongue at masses versus the standard Latin liturgy so as to better get his message across to the general public. This became the beginning of the Bohemian Reformation and a precursor to Martin Luther's Protestant reformation that would come 100 years later. 

By 1415 the Catholic Church called for the Council of Constance to bring an end to the Western Schism with France while also confronting this Bohemian Reformation. Under the guise of safe passage from Emperor Sigismund, Jan Hus attended the council to face these accusations of heresy. He was immediately arrested and forced to recant his beliefs as blasphemy which of course Hus refused to do so. He was then sentenced to execution by the council and publicly burned at the sake in the German town of Constance. This cruel act by the Catholic Church would only intensify the Hussite movement who now saw Jan Hus as their chosen messiah.       

From 1419 to 1434 the Hussite Civil War spread across Bohemia sparked by the teachings of Jan Hus. The rebellion began in 1419 when Hussites threw royal officials out of the windows in Prague, an event known as the Defenestration of Prague. Jan Zizka emerged as the great Hussite warrior and leader that stood against Sigismund's Crusader army. Zizka achieved many early victories over Sigismund's armies and began to take control of Bohemia. However the Hussite revolution eventually split into two factions (radical and moderate) which slowed the momentum of their early success. By the time of Zizka's death in 1424 due to natural causes the war shifted to the favor of Sigismund who had now made an alliance with the moderate Hussites. The radical Hussites (known as Taborites) were finally decisively beat at the Battle of Lipany in 1434 which ended the civil war. Sigismund retained power of Bohemia, however he made a compromise to allow for Hussite tolerance.  

King Vladislaus II and the Habsburg Dynasty (1435-1564)

Despite the end of the Hussite Wars that led to a compromise of religious freedom for the Hussites, the tension and hostility from the Roman Catholic Church continued. After the death of Sigismund, Bohemia once again falls into internal disarray due to the lack of an heir. The Kingdoms of Bohemia and Poland continue to press their advantage on Bohemia and eventually go to war against one another.  In 1468 Matthias Corvinus invades Bohemia and captures a large portion of Moravia and Silesia. However Vladislaus II of Poland is eventually able to drive him out and takes the throne of Bohemia in 1471. The Bohemian-Hungarian Wars would continue throughout the 1470s, but eventually came to a stalemate. 

When Corvinus died in 1490, Vladislaus secured both the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia and reigned for 45 years (the longest reigns in Bohemian history). He oversaw a cultural and economic boom during the height of the European Renaissance. In 1516 his son Louis II became king of Hungary and Bohemia however he was very young and inexperienced. Suleiman the Magnificent took advantage of the king's inexperience by launching a campaign into Hungary in 1520. The Ottoman Empire achieved a decisive victory over Hungary at the Battle of Mohacs in 1526 killing King Louis II during the fight. Bohemia luckily was able to severe itself from the Hungarian Kingdom that was now annexed by the Ottoman Empire.

Despite surviving total conquest by the Ottomans, Bohemia was once again left without a true leader. This allowed Ferdinand II of the Habsburg Dynasty (the husband of Louis II's sister) to legitimately claim the throne. This marked an end of the Czech Dynasties and the beginning of a long line of German dynasties within Bohemia. Ferdinand became king of Bohemia, Hungary, Croatia, Germany and was chosen as Holy Roman Emperor from 1556-1564. He continued to defend the borders of Central Europe against further Ottoman invasion. He also intensified the religious tension against the Hussites as a devout Catholic. He passed new laws to strengthen Catholic authority and privilege while restricting the Hussites' freedoms. This of course only added fuel once again to the brewing Protestant Reformation and Religious Wars now headed up by the German theologian Martin Luther.

The Thirty Years War (1564-1648)

After the death of Ferdinand in 1564, Maximilian II succeeds his father to become Holy Roman Emperor. Maximilian is surprisingly much more tolerant towards Protestants than his father was turns Prague and Bohemia into a Protestant hotspot of Hussites, Lutherns, and Calvinists. During this time the Holy Roman Empire is still at war against various campaigns by the Ottomans in Hungary. By the early 1600s Protestantism begins to become the majority throughout Bohemia, and many openly oppose the Habsburg's strict Catholic decrees. By 1618 the Bohemian Revolt broke out led by Protestants and Hussites seeking to expel the Habsurgs Catholics. Once again their was an infamous Defenstration of Prague, where Catholic nobles were thrown from the towers of Prague.

This uprising began the Thirty Years War between Bohemia and the Habsburg Dynasty which was in control of the Holy Roman Empire. It was essentially a religious war of Protestantism vs Catholicism and for that reason brought on foreign intervention on both sides. The war was one of the bloodiest wars in European history of it's time and snowballed into a fight for the balance of power. What began as a fight between Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire, was eventually squashed by the Habsburg at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. However the fight continued in 1625 when the Danish King Christian IV intervened against the Habsburgs on the Protestants behalf. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden also joined the Protestants against the Habsburg Catholic army.

By 1635 the conflict shifted from a religion dispute into one for political power, as the Habsburgs continued to achieve victory against the Protestants. Beginning to fear that the Holy Roman Empire would grow too powerful in Central Europe, France joined the fight on the Protestant side (even though they were mostly a Catholic nation). Led by the ruthless French cardinal Richelieu and the Swedish Emprie the war finally began to turn tides against the Habsburgs. The war came to an end in 1648 by which the Peace of Westphalia brought about a new transition of power. The Holy Roman Empire was weakened while France became the new superpower in Europe under the Sun King Louis XIV from the house of Bourbon. Despite losing to the French however the Habsburg's still maintained firm control of Bohemia over the Hussites.

The Rise of the Prussians (1648-1815)

Following the Thirty Years War, the Habsburgs further tightened their grip on Bohemia assimilating German customs and language into Czech society. Protestant and Hussite movements are harshly suppressed by the Catholic authorities. Many of these Hussite protestants migrate from Bohemia into more tolerant states such as Poland and the Netherlands. Meanwhile the Bohemian Habsburgs remained at war with Ottoman on their eastern borders. They also continued their fight against France during the Wars of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) then later sided with France in the Seven Years War against England and Prussia. The kingdom of Prussia under Frederick the Great emerged as a new key player in central Europe vying for power against Bohemia and the Habsburg Dynasty. During this time the Habsburg retained control of Bohemia, Austria, and Hungary while the Prussian Empire took control of northern Germany and Poland. 

During the late 1700s, Bohemia benefited from the ideals of the Enlightenment and further advanced their infrastructure and government. The Habsburg continued to pass reforms to modernize their region in accordance with a more secular society that was not as dominated by the church. They even allowed more religious tolerance, once again opening the doors for Protestants. This brought about an era of cultural flourishment, known as the Baroque period where Czech began to finally establish their own cultural identity. However in 1803 Europe was once again dragged in a grand-scale war brought on by the French emperor Napoleon. While the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 became considered Napoleon's greatest victories, it was also the crushing blow to the Habsburg Dynasty and the Holy Roman Empire.

The Austrian-Hungarian Empire (1815-1914)

After the Napoleonic Wars the Habsburg dynasty managed to retain control of Austria and Bohemia yet Europe was undergoing a widespread wave of nationalism. The Czech National Revival movement took shape by the early 1800s and eventually hit it's boiling point in 1848 leading an uprising in Prague. The uprising was suppressed within a few days however the ideals did not simmer away. The Habsburgs were once again severely defeated by the Prussians in 1866 which began the German Empire's reign as the top power of central Europe under Otto von Bismarck. The Habsburgs were able to strike a deal with the Germans to allow Hungary and Austria to remain intact. Bohemia was pulled into this newly established Austria-Hungarian Empire without much say in the matter. 

Emperor Franz Joseph I swore total allegiance to the German Empire, which essentially made the Austrian-Hungarian empire a junior partner to the new global superpower. During this time Czechs continued to push for their own national identity in Bohemia free from German, Austrian, or Hungarian influence. The region of Prague, Bohema is considered the industrial and economic heart of the empire even though it's capitals are in Vienna and Budapest. This of course leads to organized labor unions and even communist and socialist movements seeking to break free of the monarchy. However the sudden assassination of the emperor's nephew Franz Ferdinand in 1914 sets the dominos of world war into effect. While it began as a great inconvenience it would prove to become a blessing in disguise for Bohemian independence. 

World War I, Bohemia becomes an independent Czechoslavkia (1914-1918)

Despite great resentment many Bohemians and Czechs are forced to fight alongside the Germans and Austro-Hungarians against the Allies. They still however do their duty by providing mass industrial production to the war effort of the Central Powers. Eventually however the sentiment grows sour and mass desertion takes hold among Bohemian soldiers. The Czechoslovak Legion was established in 1914 consisting of Czechs and Slavs volunteer fighters which first fought with the Central Powers. But later shifted their position to join the Russian Communist movement and break free from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. They especially pressed the advantage in the later stage of the war by siding with the western allies.

 By 1918 World War I comes to an end where both the German and Austro-Hungarian empires are defeated. In the Peace Treaty of Versailles the entire region of central Europe is redistributed into new sovereign territories. Germany lost it's eastern territory which became the nation of Poland. Both Austria and Hungary became their own sovereign nations. Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia broke free from the Russian Empire to became their own nations. Yugoslavia was established in the Balkan territory. And Bohemia finally achieved it's independence. The lands of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Slovakia were united into one nation known as Czechoslovakia. It established it's first democratic government free from any monarchies and foreign influence (that is of course until the Soviets got involved). The next chapter of Czech history is just as interesting, but that sums up the history of the Kingdom of Bohemia.  

Book Review: The Historian

I had no intention whatsoever of diving into Romanian history, until I saw this book, The Historian by Elizabeth Kosovo for sale at Goodwill for only 2 dollars. It was like a scene out of a novel, allured by it's mysterious hardback cover as I reviewed it in the store. On the back cover was a dawning of Constantinople, on the side pamphlets were excerpts from the book, and on the inside cover was the map of Europe during the Cold War. I was so intrigued by the book alone that I just couldn't pass up on this deal. It's one of the first books I've ever bought from Goodwill. Although it was slightly used, the condition was still in very good shape. 

However this wasn't entirely some random purchase in the dark. Although I wasn't planning to buy the book on that particular day, I've actually had this book on my Goodreads list for some time now. Historical fictions have always been a favorite genre of mine, and this one seemed right up my alley (especially after many great reviews, and a good recommendation from my cousin Laura). So I decided why not dive into a Romanian setting pertaining to the infamous Vlad the Impaler and his connection to Dracula. I was actually just finishing up my World War II phase with an emphasis on the eastern front and this seemed like the perfect segue to a new phase. I even decided to read Bram Stoker's Dracula as a pre-cursor to Kostova's massive fiction novel. 

The novel was written in 2005, and is a behemoth of a book at 642 pages. The general sense I got before reading it, was that it would be an academic thriller, on par with Dan Brown's Robert Langdon series (or even Indiana Jones for that matter). These are my favorite types of books loaded with great historical insight in the midst of some mysterious adventure. The protagonist must use their scholarly knowledge to unlock the mystery which will save themselves or even humanity. This was definitely the case for The Historian, however it got a little complex with the generational and multi-perspective storytelling. I'll dive into that piece more during my review. First I want to cover the plot synopsis. 

The Plot

The story begins in 1972 Amsterdam, when the narrator (a 16 year old young girl) discovers a mysterious book with the image of a dragon inside it. She shows the book to her melancholic father, Paul who then begins to tell her the story about the book. Since it is a difficult topic for him he shares the story piece-by-piece as he takes his daughter across Europe on his diplomatic travels. Paul begins his story in the 1950s as a graduate student where he first came across this book. He presented the book to his favorite historical professor Bartholomew Rossi to help him make sense of it. At this point Rossi then begins his tale which goes back to the 1930s. 

It is revealed that the book pertains to Vlad the Impaler and the Order of the Dragon. Rossi describes how the book inspired him to do deep research on the mysterious historical character whose body was never found (which often led to associations to undead vampire tales). Rossi becomes obsessed with his research and journeys to Romania. There he visits the Snagov Monastery and discovers that Vlad's body is not there. He then goes as far as Istanbul feeling he is quite close to some great revelation. He is however threatened by mysterious characters and events which cause him to abandon his search. After finishing his tale, Rossi hands his research notes to Paul, with a fervent belief that Vlad Dracula is still alive.

After the two meet, Professor Rossi suddenly disappears. Paul feels quite certain his disappearance had something to do with their discussion since it was the last time the professor was seen. Paul decides to begin an investigation into the book and Rossi's notes, in hopes that maybe he can locate his dear professor. Paul's dissertation is on Dutch mercantile trade and he knows nothing about Transylvania and the history of Vlad the Impaler. However during his studies at a library, fate unites him with an attractive Romanian woman named Helen who is coincidentally reading the book Dracula by Bram Stoker. She later reveals that she is the daughter of Professor Rossi and is specializing in this study, so as to outshine her father. While at the library they are attacked by an evil librarian who bites Helen in the neck. Paul comes to her rescue and fights him off and chases him out of the library. The librarian is then struck dead by a car. 

The story then jumps back to present time back in the 1970s, where the narrator has now grown fascinated with the tale of Vlad Dracula. During her research she also begins to witness mysterious events and characters. She then receives a letter from her father Paul who states that has gone on a quest to find their lost mother. He then continues his story from the 1950s via a series of letters to his daughter. While she reads his letters, she goes on her own quest to locate her father first by traveling to Oxford University in London. There she meets one of Professor Rossi's old colleagues Master James, who also had received a copy of the dragon book of Dracula. Master James sends the narrator away however and appoints his graduate assistant Barley to escort her back to her home in Amsterdam. In reading her father's letters however the narrator convinces Barley to join him on the search. 

The 1950s story continues now from Paul's letters where he recounts his new found alliance with Helen following the library incident. They decide to travel to Istanbul to study the archives of Sultan Mehmed II, who was Vlad's sworn enemy throughout his lifetime. There they meet another scholarly professor named Turgut Bora who also confesses to have received a copy of the dragon book. Turgut joins them on their search of Mehmed's museum where they share great historical insight. At this point they are revisited once again by the same librarian as before who appeared to be killed by a vehicle. This time Helen pulls out a pistol and shoots at him, but the librarian is able to escape. They are all quite convinced now that this librarian is an undead vampire, perhaps even Dracula himself. 

Helen and Paul then travel to Budapest to gather more clues and information on the whereabouts of Dracula's tomb. There they meet Helen's aunt and mother who share their experience of Romanian culture and history. Helen's mother tells the long story of how she meet Professor Rossi back in the 1930s in a small town in Romania while he was searching for Dracula. It was a brief love affair and he eventually left her to return to his studies in London. During this heart-breaking story it is revealed that Helen is the descendant of Vlad Dracula. At this point it becomes clear that Paul is madly in love with Helen and the two decide to get married. However they continue their quest and are further guided by Turgut to visit a contact in Bulgaria who is also knowledgeable on this topic.

Their contact in Sofia, Bulgaria is an elder man named Stoichev who lives in a small cottage filled with books. The man is sincere and passionate about his Bulgarian history and convinces the group that the tomb is likely located at the monastery of Rila or Saint George. They eventually find an escort to the lower crypts of the Saint George monastery where they discover the body of Professor Rossi. He is now an undead vampire, and a victim of Dracula. Knowing what must be done, he bids them farewell before Paul drives a steak thru his heart. Before Rossi dies however he reveals his written account of his imprisonment in a book of Saint George. This tells of Dracula's scholarly library and his plot to disperse these dragon books to top academics (such as Rossi, Master James, Turgut, and Stoichev) so as to preserve his historical legacy. After Rossi dies, Paul and Helen find Dracula's tomb empty and are forced to leave the monastery by the local monks and officials. 

Helen and Paul return to America, with their search for Dracula is still unresolved. However they find solace that they have located professor Rossi, and agree to carry on with their lives. They get married in New York City, find suitable work as professors, and have a child together (the narrator). However after several years Helen is still conflicted with the mystery of Dracula. While visiting a monastery in Saint-Matthieu-des-Pyrenees-Orientales in France she bumps into Dracula and jumps off a cliff so as to flee from him. Paul and the local authorities cannot find her and she is eventually presumed dead. Paul must carry on for nearly 20 years raising his daughter as a widowed father and the unresolved search for Dracula.

It is eventually revealed that Helen survived the fall and went on to continue her search for Dracula. She decided not to return to her husband or daughter, in a state of fear and protection for her family but also from herself (since she had been bitten twice by the librarian vampire). The various perspectives finally come to the present point when both Paul and his daughter separately arrive to the Saint-Matthieu-des-Pyrenees-Orientales monastery at the same time. The narrator is joined by Barley, while Paul is at the precipice of unveiling the tomb in the crypt (hoping to find his long lost wife). Instead the tomb is empty once again, and in the shadows appears the dark figure of Dracula. At this moment a brawl ensues with two other mysterious figures, which are later revealed to be Master James and Helen. During the brawl, Helen is able to use her silver bullet gun to shoot Dracula thru the heart which causes him to dissolve into dust. Helen reveals where she has been the last 20 years and is welcomed back by her husband and daughter. It is believed this is the end of Dracula, however many years later the narrator is presented another dragon book. This ultimately implies that Dracula is still alive recruiting historians or now has a minion doing it for him. 

The Review

I just finished the book today and honestly have mixed feelings about it (this could change after some more reflection but right now it's at a slightly-above-average rating for me). I'd say my biggest complain off hand is the way the story unfolds thru multiple perspectives and time periods. Obviously with a historical setting, you have to have reference to the historical period and in this case a reference to the present period. However this present period unfolds in 3 different present-day gaps; first with the professor's story in the 1930s, then Paul's story in the 1950s, and then the present day story of the 1970s. Each of these 3 time periods continue to return and overlap with one another throughout the story told from different perspectives which can make for a complex linear story. You could probably even add a fourth time period when you consider the content of Vlad during the 1450s-1470s. 

I loved the detailed settings of Amsterdam, Istanbul, Budapest, Bulgaria, Romania, and France. I also thought the historical insight was great pertaining to Vlad's life,  his rivalry with Mehmed II, and the symbolic references to Saint George. I learned so much about Vlad the Impaler from this book, and was never aware that his burial location was a mystery. It's no doubt that the mystery of his burial site, along with his many cruel acts led to his associations with the undead vampire lore. The author Kostova creates an original plot here, of an academic hunt for Vlad's burial site while being hunted by mysterious vampires. It's fair to say that this is more of a Gothic fantasy than a historical fiction. While the details pertaining to Vlad Tepes are historical, the ties to vampirism delve into the realm of dark fantasy (but it's in no ways a horror novel). 

I think Kostova is ultimately expanding on Bram Stoker's work of Dracula. Stoker makes it pretty clear in his book that Dracula is the undead body of Vlad Tepes. However Kostova's vampire is quite different from Stoker's vampire. Kostova's version of Dracula doesn't live in a fancy mansion, yet rather hides in the shadows with multiple tombs. He is driven by academic knowledge and the desire to control the historical narrative. He therefore secretly haunts and recruits other scholars to assist in his library collection that falls in line with his own preservation. So in a rather ironic twist the title of the book is not referring to Professor Rossi, Paul, Helen, the narrator, or the many other scholars met along the way. It is actually Vlad Dracula who is the Historian. He is not some bloodsucking demon, rather an undead scholar who lives in libraries feeding on historical immortality.