Sunday, October 11, 2026

Istanbul Trip 2026

I've been looking forward to this trip to Istanbul for the last year now and it did not disappoint. It was arguably one of the most interesting cities I have ever experienced in my lifetime. This is likely because it is the furthest east I have ever been. Everything seemed so foreign and exotic, like a diverse city on Tatooine.  It was my first true immersive experience in a Muslim state, where the religion of Islam is the majority. It was also my first step into Asia, since Istanbul sits between Asia and Europe. I would say it's this gateway position that makes this such an amazing cultural, religious, and historic city. I haven't felt this inspired by a trip since Medellin 2024, and I would definitely return to Istanbul again if I get a chance. 

I think I started my preparation for this one as far back as last fall as I was reading the book The Historian. A good portion of the book took place in Istanbul as it was the home of Mehmed II who not only conquered the Byzantine Empire but also overcame Vlad the Impaler. After reading this book it inspired a deep historical dive into Mehmed II, one of the greatest conquerors in history. During the wintertime I pivoted to Central European history studies, which unexpectedly led to a deep dive into Christianity. This became one of my most immersive theological studies to date and it was no doubt leading towards my trip to Turkey. During these studies of the early church I discovered that Turkey could be considered the foundation of early Christianity due to it's key ecumenical councils at Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon. After that thorough study I made a brief pivot to Islam by exploring it's pillars and similarities with Christianity. This area still has me very fascinated in regards to it's relation with Christianity and it's geopolitical landscape (which begins with Istanbul as the gateway to the east).

I think I will continue to make some further studies on Islam and the city of Istanbul, but for now I have to recall the details of the trip. Although we saved tons of photos, if I don't write this down now I could lose many of the memories. So this will basically be like a journal going thru the sequential experience I had with my family. I just love reading back at my journals (or looking back at old photos), because it is almost like time-traveling. This trip to Istanbul was by far one of our most challenging, due to the distance but more-so the language barrier. It was a true adventure and it has me so very grateful and inspired that we could make the trip successfully. 

Day 1- The Voyage

This has become a new annual tradition to take a major foreign trip in October going back to Dominican Republic, Colombia, and Brazil. This however was my first trip to Europe since 2022 and my first ever trip to Western Asia and the Middle East. I actually wasn't too concerned about safety issues, since most of us have darker complexions due to our Latin heritage (except for my dad). I've often been identified many times as an Arab, which is understandable if you consider that Spain was under Muslim rule for nearly 800 years. I for one am not ashamed of this association and feel the Middle East often gets a bad wrap due to several pockets of extremism. It is an area rich of history, and has it's bad eggs no different than any other race or culture. So I'm glad I had a general understanding of Islam before I set foot in Turkey which is 80% Muslim.

Our flight was out of Chicago on a Friday afternoon on Turkish Airlines. Thankfully it was a direct flight, albeit a long 10-11 hours straight. Dad, mom, Andres, and myself awoke very early Friday morning to make the drive from Fort Wayne to O'Hare Airport. We had Burger King for breakfast at Valparaiso and got to Chicago by around 9am.We met Gabriel at the airport and all boarded the plane together for take-off at 11:30am. The flight was especially a warm one and I had to go to the bathroom several times. I watched three good new release movies however to help pass the time (Good Luck, Have Fun, Don't Die; Sentimental Value; The Drama). We got two decent meals on the trip and were also allowed snacks in the back of the plane. 

We arrived around 6:30am local time (11:30 eastern time). I was very surprised at how quick and smooth the international customs phase was. We were in-and-out of the Istanbul airport within 30 minutes. Even the taxi pickup went fairly smooth, as I had arranged the pickup thru Expedia. The taxi drive was about an hour from the airport to the Sultanhan Hotel located in the Fatih district (Gabriel and Dad got a little motion sickness during the trip). I had chosen this hotel since it was in the heart of the Old City very close the most famous and historic mosques such as the Hagia Sophia, Blue Mosque, Suleyman Mosque, and the New Mosque. The front-desk attendants were very friendly, and although we were early for check-in they allowed us to eat breakfast (and even invited Gabriel who was staying at a different hotel in the Galata district). The breakfast buffet on the 6th floor offered an amazing view of the city which gave us our first true glimpse of the impressive Hagia Sophia and Blue Mosque. We got into our room by around 9am and slept for a few hours. 

Day 2- First Exploration of Sultanahmet 

Our room had 3 beds in it, with some charming vintage furniture in it. Andres slept by the bathroom, mom-and-dad in the middle, and I slept by the window. I especially enjoyed the cool breeze coming in and the sounds of the bustling city. We slept for maybe 2 to 3 hours that day before deciding to begin our first wave of exploration around 3pm local time. I bought an international data plan thru T-mobile for the week to help us navigate the city. We walked along the main road Divanyolu Cd which was the main tram-line going north-and-west from Fatih to Galata. I had studied the metro lines and felt this would be an efficient way to navigate the city (vs spending a fortune on Ubers). Although it did take a little bit to get use to, (and I wasted some money figuring out how to put a balance on my card), I'd say we still saved a ton by using this mainline the entire week.

After buying transit cards at the train stop, we then walked over to the Sultanahmet square, the heart of the Fatih district. This area was unsurprisingly loaded with tourists as it consisted of the main landmarks, Hagia Sophia, the Blue Mosque, the Basilica Cistern, the Obelisk of Theodosius, and the Hippodrome of Constantinople. The first up-close landmark we saw was the German Fountain which was actually a more recent addition to the center in 1898 commemorating German Emperor Wilhelm II. We then got an up-close look at the Obelisk of Theodosius which is one of the oldest structures in the city going back to the Egyptian age of 1450 BC. Then walking into the courtyard of the Blue Mosque was truly awe-inspiring. We then walked by the Hagia Sophia which I was quite disappointed to see it under renovation (same thing happened when seeing the Parliament building in London).  We then got an up-close look at the Fountain of Ahmed III (1728) and the Imperial Gate of the Topkapi Palace (1465). The Topkapi Palace was the imperial home of the Ottoman Empire, however unfortunately it cost money to see the grounds (which also included the Hagia Irene).

We eventually met up with Gabriel and took lots of photos around the historical landmarks. Of course by this point there was hunger brewing and we impulsively decided to take the train north to Gabriel's hotel district. This was our first ride on the subway and we crossed the Galata Bridge. We eventually found a nice restaurant with an incredible view overlooking the Golden Horn. This was our most luxurious experience with a feast of drinks, sea bass, lamb, chicken, vegetables, rice, and various sauces and breads. The food was exceptional however also a very costly experience at around 60$ a piece. We took some of our best photos from that viewpoint, and although it was a pricey evening, it was the perfect way to start our week in Istanbul. We were also entertained by the majestic seagulls and the abundant street cats who were constantly looking for food (similar to Athens, Greece).

After dinner that night we decided to walk back to our hotel across the Galata Bridge. The view from across the bridge at night was immaculate aligned with fishermen, the sunset, boats galore, and the illuminated mosques. The walk home was a challenging navigation of twists and turns thru cobblestone streets, steep hills, dark alleys, and bustling marketplaces. My mom especially enjoyed the cheap prices and decided she wanted to return to shop here the next day. We later discovered we were walking thru the outer street markets of the Grand Bazaar(which basically went in every direction). As we got close to our hotel, I bought a variety pack of baklava dessert to share with everyone which cost me around 18$. It was very rich and tasty and got us thru several nights. I think we made it back to our hotel room around 8-9pm and went to bed shortly after. At one point we all awoke around 2am still getting use to the time difference. Andres decided to explore the night streets for some late night food (unsuccessfully however). 

Day 3- St. Anthony of Padua and Galata Tower

That morning after breakfast dad and I planned to go to Sunday morning mass, while mom and Andres met up with Gabriel. We took the tram line north to the Tophane stop and walked up a very steep hill to get to the Church of St. Anthony of Padua. It was one of the few Catholic Churches in Istanbul, however had quite the impressive exterior facade. I had presumed we would get the traditional Latin mass, but it was actually quite a modern progressive one. Although we were graced by the presence of the bishop, the choir was the standout piece for me. It was a group of Philippine women that had the most angelic of voices and harmony (especially their responsorial psalm). 

After mass we walked along a busy street (the Istiklal Cd) which was filled with shops, pedestrians, and a charming trolley line. We then met up with Gabriel, mom, and Andres at the Galata tower. This was an iconic landmark that was built by the Genoese Italian merchants in 1348. We decided not to pay the 30$ to climb to the top and wait forever in line. However we did stop at a nice cafe directly across from the tower, where I had my first Turkish Coffee. After this drink we decided to walk back through the Istiklal street as well as see the church again. This was basically a reverse trip for dad-and-I back to transit station but new territory for mom, Andres, and Gabriel. We then took the train-line straight from Tophane to the Grand Bazaar (however discovered that the Bazaar was closed on Sundays). After a little more shopping in the street markets we found a restaurant located within a cemetery. The food was affordable however very unsatisfactory. We dropped in on a cheap grocery store before heading back to our hotel to rest a little more.

That evening mom led the charge as we walked back thru the street markets headed northward to the southern point of the Galata Bridge (at the Eminonu Terminal). We arranged for Gabriel to meet us for dinner at this booming seaport. We walked thru the Egyptian Bazaar and got a close-up look at the Yeni Cami Mosque (also known as the New Mosque). For dinner we found a fairly priced location with typical Turkish food and friendly service. I ordered my first Turkish doner here (similar to a gyro but with a thinner wrap). Dad ordered his first fish wrap and I think mom got some beef and rice. It was here we became aware of their complimentary tea custom to close out each meal. After some more shopping and photos we walked back to the hotel to have some more baklava and snacks before bed. I slept terrible that night and could not fall back asleep after 3am. I was able to stream the Lions game however who were playing Sunday Night Football back in the states (unfortunately they lost to the Panthers).

Day 4- Hagia Sophia, Blue Mosque, and the Grand Bazaar

After a rough night of sleep I was still very excited to set foot inside the historic Hagia Sophia and Blue Mosque. I realized that not everyone else shared my enthusiasm for these landmarks so I had to make the most of it. After breakfast we first made our way back to the Sultanahmet square to see the Blue Mosque. Thankfully it was free to enter as long as we were wearing pants, shoes off, and hair covered for the women. The line was surprisingly short and it took us no longer then ten minutes to get inside. I found the inner chambers to be quite mesmerizing, loaded with intricate artwork, lamps, stained-glass windows, geometrical patterns, and calligraphy. It was quite different from our typical Christian church structure of pews and a front altarpiece, rather an open-spaced floorplan with carpet. It was clear that this type of space was strictly meant for total prostration, knees to the ground in prayer-and-worship. Dad of course was not impressed by the structure, however I think the rest of us felt the spiritual presence of it all. Even if you didn't feel the godly presence it could still be admired for it's aesthetic artwork, like a grand museum, and I of course took many photos.

After this we made our way to the Hagia Sophia, where I was devastated to discover the entry was not free. My research had told me it was free entry just like all other mosques, however I learned the circumstances was different in this case since the building was under renovation. After asking around, I painfully decided to pay an overpriced 50$ to enter the 2nd level of the building. This would be a solo experience since dad, mom, and Andres did not want to pay that kind of money (understandably so as it was very overpriced). So I took the camera and slowly walked thru the ancient corridors of this historic building built by Justinian in 537 AD. Just seeing the stone walls it was clear to see this was one of the oldest buildings I had ever been inside (maybe alongside the Pantheon of Rome).

When I made it to the 2nd level, I saw the open main chamber with it's massive central dome. Unfortunately much of it was covered by drapes and scaffolding which really took away from the experience. I couldn't even see the famous seraphim angels surrounding the central ceiling dome. Perhaps the most striking feature were the massive Islamic calligraphic medallions which bear the names of Allah, Muhammad, and the caliphs. Even after this however I was still quite unsatisfied until I saw the famous Christian mosaics in the southern upper gallery. These are considered some of the greatest works of Byzantine Christian art, most especially the Deesis, which depicts the iconic Christ Pantocrator. This is arguably one of the most famous depictions of Jesus Christ, and I'm very glad I got to see it in person. I would compare this to the Mona Lisa of Christian art. It somehow made the experience feel all the more special and worthwhile (albeit still overpriced).

As I was having my own historical experience, mom and Andres both scheduled hair appointments while dad tagged alone. I eventually made it back to the hotel to rest for a while. We all regrouped in the hotel room, where mom and dad shared their experience of being ripped off at the salon. They were also highly overcharged for a hair and facial treatment (spending over $500). Andres also had a pricey haircut, but nowhere near as much. I think we all felt quite ripped off that morning, but mom once again took it in good stride and encouraged us to get over it. After a little bit of rest we pressed on for phase two. We regrouped with Gabriel and decided to walk to the Grand Bazaar to do some more shopping. 

The Grand Bazaar is another very historic feature of the city, dating back to the early Ottoman Conquest. The covered building was erected in the 1460s to house valuable items mostly jewelry. It kind of felt like a giant mall selling everything imaginable. I think my mom wasn't as impressed with the higher prices and we didn't really make any shopping stops. We did however stop at another cafe where I bought dad a Turkish coffee. After this we left the indoor Bazaar and I was able to convince everyone to drop in on the Suleyman Mosque. This was the shrine of Suleyman the Magnificent built in  the 1550s. Only dad and I went inside, but it's interior was just as impressive as the Blue Mosque. I took lots of photos, especially of our amazing view from outside the Mosque that was perched on a hill looking towards the Golden Horn. 

After this we continued through the street markets and found a busy lunch spot with typical Turkish food. I ordered my second doner at this point and this time everything was affordable and enjoyable. We all got a laugh at our host who was very loud and persistent. This of course was the norm among all Turkish salesman who were constantly standing in front of their stores or restaurants trying to lure us in thru aggressive and pushy peddling. Mom ordered some very tasty Kunefe here at this place with a side of ice cream that was some of the best dessert we had (aside from the Turkish delights). We eventually walked all the way to the Eminonu pier once again and I impulsively dropped in on the Yeni Camii (New Mosque). This time I went inside on my own, which happened to be my fourth mosque visit of the day. I also came to enjoy the adhan prayers that were recited over speakers during the prayer times from the Mosques. The singing was somewhat eerie but beautiful at the same time, which truly added to this other-worldly feeling of Istanbul.

We eventually went back to the hotel to rest a little more, and I for one was about spent at the point. But mom surprisingly led a third phase that evening for dinner. This time I believe we took the train once again to meet Gabriel at the Karakoy district in the Galata region. I ordered a very tasty meal like a cheesy steak pizza boat. I think after this we might have walked around the very charming boulevard that seemed to cater more to nightlife and drinking festivities. I don't think we stayed out too late after this however. I was very exhausted from what turned out to be a very memorably day of sightseeing, shopping, lots of walking, and great food. 

Day 5- Ferry to the Asian side

On Tuesday we planned to take the ferry from the Eminonu terminal to the Asian side of Istanbul. We decided to let Gabriel plan and lead the day, since he had been somewhat left out of the previous excursions. I for one would have liked to explore the northern side of Uskudar, however Gabriel took us to the southern side of Kadikoy. The ferry ride was an enjoyable one on a perfect sunny day. Dad and Gabriel were feeling seasick once again so decided to stay inside with mom, while Andres and I enjoyed the views from outside the boat deck. We later all sat together to watch a live guitarist playing traditional Turkish music inside. Once we landed I was impressed how quick and easy the boarding-and-offboarding process was. 

Getting off at the Kadikoy terminal was my first official step into Asia and it immediately felt like eastern Europe. That first road along the Asian coastline was slummy reminding me of the train station of Brno, Czech Republic. However surprisingly when we made it more into the shopping district, things came to life and it turned out to be an enjoyable afternoon. Just as with the western side, there were stores, restaurants, and bars going in every direction. Gabriel was keen that we just sit down and not sightsee today, which was fine by me to do some people watching. Andres was wearing an Assassin's Creed outfit and took lots of cool photos in the streets. We first stopped at a couple bars and ordered some drinks, before making our way to a seafood restaurant. The menu was quite pricey so I just had a beer and an appetizer of sauce and bread. Mom continued to shop and we eventually made our way to a iconic bull statue (reminiscent of the Wall Street NYC Bull). 

We then took the ferry back to the Eminonu Terminal and decided to rest at Gabriel's new hotel room. He decided to change rooms because his AC wasn't working too well at his first hotel. Andres parted ways with us to meet up with a friend that evening. I remember it was around this time that I discovered a good portion of our digital Nikon photos were missing, which had me bothered (since I had taken a lot of photos the previous days at the mosques). After a little bit of resting we went back to the Karakoy bar strip to get some pre-game drinks and find a dinner spot. We found a good deal on Happy Hour beers where they were playing some good techno music. I began to enjoy myself and get over the whole missing photos ordeal. For dinner we found a burger joint where I ordered a tasty hamburger and fries. We were once again quite entertained by people watching, cat watching, the ezan prayer chants, and just the overall vibe of the city. 

After dinner we walked a little more around Karakoy, the Galata Bridge, and the Eminonu Pier. I bought a nice North Face sweater in a shop near the bridge, no doubt a counterfeit knock-off but still a good looking sweater at a cheap price. Gabriel parted ways with us at this point as mom, dad, and I took a different route back to our hotel. I believe we took a more direct route along the Ankara road heading southward towards out hotel (seeking to avoid some of the twists-and-turns of the western market route). That night in the hotel room while mom-and-dad were saying the Rosary I was able to locate the missing photos. I found they had been saved under RAW format instead of the usual JPEG format. This was a great relief, as I was even considering revisiting the Blue Mosque to take some new photos.

Day 6- Street Markets and Night Cruise

After breakfast that day we decided to do a full-on shopping excursion of the Grand Bazaar and all the street markets. I think Gabriel and Andres were also joining mom in the shopping spirit. Although the prices were very good, I had to be a little more cautious since my budget was a little tighter at the time. I did however still need to get some souvenirs which included my usual magnet, scarf, plates, and landmark replica models. I brought the Nikon camera along and took some great vibrant shots of the market in action. Once again we were getting bombarded with salesmanship from all angles but this of course added to the experience. Especially walking shoulder-to-shoulder with all forms of ethnicities while the motorbikes weaved around the pedestrians. The women draped in their hijabs or burkas added to the mystical appeal. There was also a strange flux of hair and lip implants that seemed to be the trend of the people. It all felt so alien to me, reminding me of Aladdin or a far-off metropolis from Star Wars.

For lunch we found a fair-priced sandwich restaurant right in the heart of the marketplace. I once again ordered a doner sandwich with a Fanta. As we were eating we were approached by an herbal tea salesmen who offered us some tea and Turkish delight. This convinced mom to check out the merchants' store, who then spent a good half-hour buying tea from the guy. The tea was actually quite medicinal like drinking a form of cough syrup. After this we went back to the hotel to rest for a while before our big night cruise. I had booked us a night dinner cruise along the Bosphorus river which was going to be like our main event of the trip. I got a little scare when the reservation was cancelled but I managed to book a different one with a similar service at only 30$ a person. This was a great deal since it included a 3 hour trip around the Golden Horn, a full course meal, unlimited soft drinks, and traditional Turkish entertainment. The cruise was not until 8:30pm however which meant a much latter night then usual for us. 

After some good rest, Andres went back out to reunite with his friend while mom, dad, and myself joined Gabriel once again in the Karakoy bar strip. This was our third consecutive night at Karakoy having some pre-game drinks. This time I wore my new North Face fleece and was feeling pretty good after a couple drinks. As we were sitting at the bar strip people watching, we randomly saw Andres and his friend walk by. This was a total chance encounter, but mom invited his friend to join us for the night. His name was Resul and he was actually a very friendly guy and helped us with the language barriers. Before we boarded the boat, dad and I decided to buy a pack of cigarettes, which were incredibly cheap at around 4$. I had been craving a smoke all trip whether hookah, cigar, or a cigarette since it was just everywhere throughout the city. Dad of course was also onboard.

From this point on it was nice to have Resul as our guide as we took the train north to the Kabatas station then boarded the Lufer cruise line. The diner hall inside the boat was quite packed and warm, but it felt nice once we were able to step outside. Our salad and appetizer was already waiting for us as we took our seats. We then walked around outside and enjoyed the views of the city at night. Gabriel and Dad were once again getting seasick and stayed indoors most the night. I took lots of photos of the city along the river, which included some new landmarks such as the Dolmabache Palace, the Maiden's Tower, and the Buyuk Mecidiye Camii Mosque. Going under the Bosphorus Bridge was also quite incredible. The night photos did not come out so well on the Nikon camera, however were better on my mobile phone. 

The entertainment inside included the traditional whirling dervishes as well as other Turkish folk dances (unfortunately I missed the belly dancer, but thankfully that meant I didn't have to cough up extra lira cash). Towards the end they started inviting everyone on the dance floor with the Macarena and other hips songs. Mom had a real good time dancing to some salsa music. Overall it was an enjoyable night on the boat, and surprisingly we didn't buy any drinks from the bar. We got back to the Kabatas station around 11:30 and took the train line straight to our hotel. That evening I remember pigging out on Turkish delights which we had bought earlier from the street markets. I decided they were my new favorite Turkish deserts, even more so then the baklava.   

Day 7- Final Day

We were all slow to wake up the next morning, since we didn't get to bed till 1am. I think it was around 9am when we finally made it to breakfast and Gabriel already had an early start on the day and met us at our hotel room. We agreed to divide and conquer since we all had slightly different feels for the day with it being our last day. Gabriel and mom wanted to continue to shop, while Andres wanted to hit the gym, and I wanted to do one last sightseeing walk. I was able to get dad to join me back to the Sultanahmet Square where we did another pass of the Blue Mosque and Hagia Sophia. Outside the Hagia Sophia I saw a hypnotic artwork of the Christ Pantocrator for sale and was able to barter with the merchant. The price was 20$, but since I only had 9$ he agreed to sell it to me. This was the last of my Turkish lira, and I was quite happy with the purchase. After this dad-and-I walked to the southern coastline overlooking the Sea of Marmara. This was by no means an easy journey as we had to cross a busy interstate, but I think it was quite worth it to sit on a bench and enjoy the view of the sea. We also stopped at the Little Hagia Sophia along the way.

After this we regrouped at the hotel room, and dad was pretty wiped out from the long walk. Mom and Gabriel had shopped-till-they-dropped with bags of clothing from the street markets. I wasn't very hungry but decided to join mom, Andres, and Gabriel for a lunch while dad hung back to rest in the hotel room. We found a nice spot near the hotel in the midst of the street markets. It was a bit on the pricey spot, but mom treated us all. I ordered another pizza cheese steak boat (which was good but not as tasty as the one I had ordered earlier in Karkoy). After that we got back to the hotel room and rested and started to pack for our return trip. I had to spend some time with Turkish Airlines getting our boarding passes sorted out. We later met Andres' friend Resul once again for a nice fancy dinner. This was a similar experience as our first pricey feast which included a mixture of various Turkish dishes. It was a rather brief dinner and I think by this point we were all quite exhausted and ready to get some rest. That night before going back in the hotel I had one last cigarette with dad, where we met a Kurdish person down on his luck. His entire family was killed by an earthquake in 2023. We offered him a cigarette then went to sleep by around 10pm. 

Day 8- Return Trip

We hardly got much sleep that night, knowing we had to wake up at 3am. The AC in the room had also stopped working at this point. Thankfully however the taxi driver arrived early and we were able to get the show on the road. Gabriel would not be joining us on the return trip since he had to fly straight to India on business. Our flight was at 6:30am, and we made it to our gate fairly easy with about an hour to spare. The Turkish airport was quite unique in that once you enter your gate you are unable to leave it. There was also four boarding pass checks within the gate which seemed quite odd. Once we boarded the plane I decided to let Andres have my aisle seat while I sat in the middle (since he had to sit in the middle on the way there). I slept for a bit and watched three sub-par movies during the flight (The Voice of Hind Rajab, Solo Mio, and Couture). Thankfully this flight was a lot cooler and seemed to go by much faster than the first trip. 

Our main concern when we arrived was finding our parking spot and hoping the car would start. This had become a frequent issue on several of our last return trips. Going thru international customs in Chicago was once again very quick and easy. We even worked together to board the Transit system back to our parking garage and found our car without much issue. However we were not so lucky with the KIA, which would not start for the 3rd time after a long trip. I was familiar with the process at this point and called the parking line, who was there in about 15 minutes to give us a jump. I drove the first shift to Valparaiso where we had Applebee's for lunch. It was nice to enjoy some real hamburger once again. Dad drove the second shift back to Fort Wayne. We reminisced about the tirp and how much fun we had the way back. We then picked up Max and I stopped briefly at the parents before finishing my final leg to Zionsville. It was a very long day, and I finally got to bed by around 9pm (4am Istanbul time). It was a successful trip full of so many great memories, and will go down as one of my all time favorite family trips. I will certainly plan to continue to read up on this city and hope to someday make another return trip.   

Monday, September 28, 2026

Theological Study: Islam

In preparation for my trip to Istanbul, Turkey next week I've been drawn to a study of Islam the last few weeks. This quite naturally spawned from my long study of Christian theology and philosophy. I made my first deep dive into Middle Eastern history in the winter of 2023-2024 while playing the video game Assassin's Creed Mirage. It was then that I made my first study on the prophet Muhammed and his influence across Arabia from 610-631 AD. I remember being quite surprised with two things about Islam; the first being that it emerged 600 years after Christianity; but second is the incredible speed of it's spread across the Middle East. While Christianity took about 300 years to get properly established in Rome, Islam took only 70 years to become the main religion of the Middle East and Northern Africa.

I already covered much of the history on the rise of Islam here; Golden Age of Islam, so wont spend much time on this topic. I would however like to touch upon the foundational elements and the evolution that led to its emergence. I actually also touched upon this topic 2 years ago in my study on Middle Eastern Mythology (see Study of Mesopotamian Mythology). I found that many of these ancient empires such as Sumer, Egypt, Akkadian, Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia established some of the earliest forms of organized religion (even though they were mostly polytheistic). It's fair to say they helped influence the major monotheistic religions of Judaism and Zoroastrianism by around 1000 BC. These religions were later reformed by the movements of Christianity and subsequently that of Islam, which will be my focus now.

Islam is considered one of the three Abrahamic religions alongside Judaism and Christianity. Their roots are aligned with the Hebrew Old Testament that holds Abraham as their patriarch. However the divergence occurs with the children of Abraham, where the Jews become descendants of Isaac while the Muslims become descendants of Ishmael. One important thing to emphasize however is that the Ishmaelites were NOT an established religion (even though the Jews referred to them as such). Another very important detail of early Islamic tradition is that Abraham takes his son Ishmael from Israel to Mecca where they establish the Kaaba. The Jewish book of Genesis does not mention this detail however and briefly states that Hagar and Ishmael are sent away from Israel to the wilderness of Paran (the Sinai region of Egypt).

Since I love tracing the historical timeline of the Old Testament tradition, let's presume that Ishmael arrived to Mecca from Israel around 2000-1800 BC. At this point the region of Arabia did not have a dominant religion, yet practiced various forms of polytheistic practices. So the obvious question here is why didn't Ishmael's monotheistic belief of the Abrahamic God spread like it did in Israel for the Jews? The Islamic answer is that it was simply corrupted by the polytheistic idolatry of it's time. It was not until the arrival of the prophet Muhammed that this Abrahamic religion was restored in Arabia. At the time of Muhammed's arrival in 600 AD, the region of Arabia was influenced by Judaism, Christianity, Arabian polytheism, and Zoroastrianism (from the Persian Empire). However I would make the case that the emergence of Islam was primarily a response to the spread of Christianity. Muhammed presented a major reform to Christianity that became it's own religion, which eventually became the 2nd largest religion in the world. 

The Qur'an

Just as with the Jewish Torah or the Christian Bible, the Islamic Qur'an is the primary source of their religious tradition. It's origins are actually quite unique from the other two books however in that is considered a pure revelation. Whereas the Torah and the Bible have multiple sources such as Moses, David, and the apostles, the Qur'an was all recorded by one person; the prophet Muhammed. According to tradition Muhammed received the first revelation from the angel Gabriel in 610 AD and continuously for the next 23 years. These revelations were thus recited and shared amongst his followers which grew into the written text of the Qur'an. Following Muhammed's death in 632, the oral traditions were preserved by Abu Bakr into a complete codex, organized by the scribe Zayd ibn Thabit. This collection of written text became properly standardized into the Quran during the reign of third caliph Uthman from 644-656. 

The structure of the Qur'an is quite different from the chronological ordering of the Bible. Its dictation is pure poetic praise and devotion of God, almost on par with the Psalms. Throughout its 114 chapters (known as Surahs), the book addresses theology, morality, Islamic law, traditional biblical stories, worship, judgement, and so forth. It is seen more as a guide for humanity rather then a collection of stories. These stories pertain to the biblical narratives of Adam, Abraham, Moses, and even Jesus. However each of these narratives are used as a moral lesson in their relation and connection to the authority of God. The book is held in the highest of regards since it is considered the literal words of God, reveled to the messenger Muhammed. Aside from it's theological significance it is also highly revered as one of the finest works of literature, with pure beautiful poetry.     


Theological Differences from Christianity

  1. Muslims believe there is only one God (referred to as Allah). Although this is the same God of Abraham followed by the Jews and Christians the key difference is the interpretation of that God. The Muslims strongly reject the Christian Trinity concept which holds that God is three persons (God, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit). 
  2. Muslims believe Muhammed was the messenger of God and the final prophet. He received the revelation from God which became the Qur'an. The Christian Bible however makes no mention of Muhammed. 
  3. Muslims believe Jesus Christ is not the begotten divine son of God and reject the concept of Incarnation. They still hold him in high regards as the great human prophet and messiah. 
  4. Muslims believe Jesus Christ was not crucified, and did not die at all. 
  5. Muslims believe Jesus Christ did not ascend into heaven by his own power, rather he was raised into heaven by God (similar to the Assumption of Mary).
  6. The role of Joseph as the husband of Mary is completely nonexistent in Islam tradition.
  7. The Holy Spirit is NOT the third person of the trinity and is often associated to the angel Gabriel (as God's messenger).
  8. Jesus received a revelation from God (known as the Injil). The New Testament is the revelation of Jesus and NOT the apostles (most notably Peter, Paul, or John). Although Islam recognizes the disciples of Christ, they do not consider them as the divine messengers of God.  
  9. Christian theology puts heavy emphasis on the inherited Original Sin where all humanity are born as sinners and salvation comes purely through God's grace. However Muslims reject this concept and emphasize we are born with a clean slate Salvation comes through faith, repentance, righteousness, and God's mercy. 
  10. Christian theology puts heavy emphasis on the atonement of sin through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Islam rejects that Christ died for the sins of humanity. 

Theological Similarities with Christianity
  1. Both believe in the same God of Abraham who created the heavens and the earth.
  2. Both believe in Satan as the ruler of evil.
  3. Both believe in the Old Testament. Muslims consider the Old Testament as a genuine revelation from God. Although some of the details vary, they believe in all it's central figures and narratives pertaining to Adam, Eve, Noah, Abraham, Jacob, Isaac, Solomon, David, etc. Islam however puts higher emphasis on Abraham and his son Ishmael as the prophets of God. They also hold that the Kabbah was built by Abraham and Ishmael.
  4. Both Christians and Muslims share a strong belief in the angels, most notably Gabriel and Michael.
  5. Both religions give high regards to John the Baptist as the prophet of God.
  6. Both religions give high regards to the Virgin Mary, as the virgin mother of Jesus Christ. 
  7. The Virgin Mary was visited by the angel Gabriel, who told her she would carry the messiah. She then gave birth to Jesus Christ thru a miraculous conception. (However Joseph is not mentioned in the Qur'an). 
  8. Both religions believe in the afterlife of heave and hell. 
  9. Both believe in the soul and a spiritual realm. 
  10. Muslims regard Jesus Christ as the Messiah who will return again to judge the living and the dead. 

Ecclesiastic Differences

  1. Islam does not have a central governing authority like the Papal See or Magisterium. 
  2. Muslims do not practice the sacraments (Most notably the Eucharist). However they do practice repentance through individual atonement (known as tawbah). 
  3. Muslims pray 5 times a day (known as the salat)
  4. They have a weekly communal mosque service known as the Jumu'ah which occurs on Friday. It consists of the ritual Salat prayer, as well as a sermon from the imam (Islamic scholar). It is quite different from the Christian Sunday Mass Service in that there is no Eucharistic liturgy.
  5. Islam tradition strongly bans the display of icons depicting God or the prophets. Instead mosques are covered with intricate patterns, calligraphy, and geometrical artwork. Christians on the other hand rely heavily on iconography (Most notably the Eastern Orthodox Church, even though they did briefly ban images for a while during the Byzantine Iconoclasm).
  6. It is required that all Muslims contribute 2.5% of their earnings to charity. This is not an optional clause like the Christian's Sunday collection. 
  7. It is required that all Muslims make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during their lifetime (known as the Hajj).   
  8. During the holy season of Ramadan, Muslims must fast from sunrise to sunset. This is a much stricter discipline then the Catholic Lenten tradition of giving something up and no meat on Fridays.  
  9. Women and men are required to dress modestly in public. The Hijab is the most common form of headscarf for a woman to wear. 
  10. Alcohol is strictly prohibited in Islam. Whereas in the Catholicism, the wine is considered part of the Eucharist sacrament. 

The Historical Timeline

  • 570- Muhammad is born
  • 610- Muhammad receives the Revelation of the Quar'an from the angel Gabriel
  • 622- Muhammad establishes the Muslim community of Medina
  • 630- Muhammad and the Muslims conquer the sacred city of Mecca and claim the ancient Kabba
  • 632- Muhammad dies
  • 632-661- Four Rashidun "Rightly Guided" Caliphs
  • 656-661- First Fitna Muslim Civil War over Ali's Caliphate. Ali is assassinated
  • 661-750- Umayyad Caliphate expands Muslim territory from Spain to India (the zenith of their territorial empire)
  • 680- Husayn is assassinated (son of Ali and grandson of Muhammad)
  • 8th century- Sunni/Shi'ite schism further develops
  • 9th to 12th century- Golden Age of Islam (centered in Baghdad)
  • 1095- The Crusades- Christians launch a series of military campaigns against the Muslims, but ultimately fail to take back their Holy Land
  • 11th to 13th century- Sufism movement begins to develop
  • 1258- Baghdad falls to the Mongols
  • 1517-1924- Ottoman Caliphate
  • 1924-present- Modern day Islam  

5 Pillars of the Faith

  • Shahada- Belief in God and the prophet Muhammed. "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammed is the messenger of Allah". 
  • Salat- Daily prayer to Allah. This must occur five times a day, facing the Kabba in Mecca. This is a structured form of bowing and prostration. They have a weekly communal service of prayer on Fridays known as the Jumu'ah
  • Zakat- Give to charity. This is not optional but an obligatory 2.5% of one's earnings given to the poor
  • Sawm- Fasting. During the 30-day season of Ramadan fasting is expected from sunrise to sunset
  • Hajj- Pilgrimage. Every Muslim should make a Pilgrimage to the Mecca at least once in their lifetime

6 Articles of the Faith

  • Belief in God (Allah)- Allah is the one true and eternal God. Creator of everything. The Supreme Authority. Absolute Monotheism
  • Belief in the Angels- The angels are the messengers of God, who serve according to his will.
    • Jibril (Gabriel)- Angel of Revelation. He delivered revelation to the prophets, the Nativity Story, and most importantly he delivered the Qur'an to Muhammad
    • Mika'il (Michael)- Angel of Provision and Nature. He is associated with God's creation and the natural order of the universe.
    • Israfil- Angel of the Trumpet. He will blow the trumpet that announces the Day of Resurrection
    • Azrael- Angel of Death. He is like the grim reaper who collects souls upon death and escorts them to the afterlife
    • Munkar & Nakir- They judge the faith of the dead while in their graves
    • Malik- Guardian of Jahannam (Hell)
    • Harut & Marut- Mentioned in a story in the Qur'an pertaining to Babylon and magic
    • Kiraman Katibin- The Noble Recorders who archive people's good deeds
  • Belief in the Revealed Books- These are the sacred scriptures revealed by the word of God
    • Qur'an- God's final revelation delivered to Muhammad
    • Tawrat (Torah)- God's revelation delivered to Moses and the Jews
    • Zabur (Psalms)- God's revelation delivered to David
    • Ingil (Gospels)- God's revelation delivered thru the prophet Jesus Christ
  • Belief in the Prophets and Messengers
    • Muhammad- The final prophet and messenger of God who received God's revelation in the Qur'an. He established the Islam faith and ascended into heaven.
    • Jesus Christ- The great prophet and Messiah of God. Conceived miraculously by Virgin Mary. Performed miracles and taught of salvation thru the revelation of God's Gosepls. He did not die or resurrect, rather was raised up into heaven. His second coming will mark the Day of Judgement. He is NOT considered the son or substance of God.
    • John the Baptist- Prophet who paved the way for Jesus Christ
    • Solomon- Prophet and King famous for his wisdom
    • David- Prophet and King who received the revelation of the Psalms
    • Moses- Chosen by God to free the Israelites from Egyptian captivity
    • Ishmael- Son of Abraham and Father of the Muslims. Helped build the Kabba with his father Abraham. 
    • Abraham- Chosen by God to serve as patriarch of humanity and the New Covenant. Built the Kabba in Mecca
    • Noah- Chosen by God to save life from destruction
    • Adam and Eve- First humans created by God
    • Belief in the Day of Judgement- Human beins will be judged on the final day and sent to eternal Jannah or Jahannam (Heaven and Hell)
    • Belief in the Divine Decree (al-Qadar)- God has complete knowledge of everything that happens. Humans are responsible for their free will, which happens according to God's will and foreknowledge

    Muslim Concepts and Practices

    • Ramadan- Sacred month of fasting. 30 day period associated with the revelation of the Qur'an to Muhammad. During this season, Muslims are expected to fast from sunrise to sunset. 
    • Hadith- theological reports and doctrines about Muhammad. These pertain to the teachings of Muhammad and are considered supplementary literature to the Quran. 
    • Sunnah- To live one's life in accordance to the example set forth by Muhammad. 
    • Tawhid- Oneness of God. Absolute monotheism. Creator of all things. This strongly rejects the Trinitarian concept. 
    • Hijra- Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina. This marks the beginning of the Islamic calender. 
    • Isra Muhammad's famous Night Journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (often depicted as riding a heavenly creature known as the al-Buraq). This was prior to his trip to Medina in 622.
    • Mir'aj- Muhammad's Ascension into heaven. Following his Isra to Jerusalem, he is raised up into heaven by God and meets him at the Sidrat al-Muntaha (Lote Tree of the Utmost Boundary). While in heaven he meets Adam, Jesus, John the Baptist, Idris, Aaron, Moses, and Abraham. This is not in the Qur'an but is depicted in Hadith tradition.
    • Shirk- Associating equals to God, like a form of idolatry or polytheism. This is the opposite of Tawhid and considered the gravest of sins in Islam
    • Taqwa- Mindfulness of God. To be constantly aware and conscious of God's presence and his will.
    • Jihad- Striving to follow the path of God. Living in accordance to his will. Not to be mistaken for a holy war. 
    • Tawbah- Repentance to God. An individual process of sincere purification. Seeking to ask forgiveness, turn away from sin, and return to God. 
    • Imam- A religious scholar and leader of a communal prayer (like a priest). 
    • Hijab- It is a headscarf worn by women to display modesty in public. It is considered an obligatory Muslim Law
    • Barzakh- The intermediate state after death, where the soul awaits the final judgement where they are sent to heaven or hell. This is considered like a form of purgatory where the soul goes on, and is questioned by the angels Munkar and Nakir
    • Jahannam- After Judgement Day the spirits of the damned are sent to Hell. Islam holds that this is not an eternal state and that some may still achieve salvation thru God's grace. 
    • Jannah- After Judgement Day the spirits of the righteous are reunited with their earthly bodies and sent to Paradise/Heaven
    • Kaaba- The most sacred relic of Islam, that consists of a black cubed box located in Mecca. It is often associated as the first place of worship built by Abraham and his son Ishmael. 
    • Hajar al-Aswad (Black Stone)- Located within the Kaaba is the Black Stone. According to tradition it was given to Muhammad as a white stone, but later turned black as a symbol of humanity's sins. 
    • Ummah- The worldwide community of Muslims

    99 Divine Names of God

    While it is ultimately impossible to comprehend the infinitude of God, Islamic tradition offers a list of names to help describe his nature. These are all attributes of God that describe his divine qualities. They are mostly found in the Qur'an as well as other Islamic Hadith traditions. The Qur'an encourages the use of these poetic names, in verse 7:180 "To Allah belong the Most Beautiful Names, so call upon him by name". The number 99 comes from Haith tradition where Muhammad states, "Allah has ninety-nine names, one hundred minus one; whoever enumerates them will enter Paradise". This list became standardized throughout the 9th century by Islam scholars (such as Jami al-Tirmidhi). It has been widely used to this day as a poetic way to give praise, gratitude, and glorification to God. 

    1. Ar-Raḥmān — The Most Gracious (114 times; in the opening Bismillah of each chapter)
    2. Ar-Raḥīm — The Most Merciful (114 times; in the opening Bismillah of each chapter)
    3. Al-Malik — The King 
    4. Al-Quddūs — The Most Holy 
    5. As-Salām — The Source of Peace
    6. Al-Mu'min — The Giver of Faith
    7. Al-Muhaymin — The Protector/Guardian/Overseer
    8. Al-'Azīz — The Almighty One (92 times in the Qur'an)
    9. Al-Jabbār — The Compeller/Restorer
    10. Al-Mutakabbir — The Supreme/Majestic
    11. Al-Khāliq — The Creator 
    12. Al-Bāri' — The Originator
    13. Al-Muṣawwir — The Fashioner
    14. Al-Ghaffār — The Great Forgiver
    15. Al-Qahhār — The Subduer
    16. Al-Wahhāb — The Bestower
    17. Ar-Razzāq — The Provider
    18. Al-Fattāḥ — The Opener/Granter of Victory
    19. Al-'Alīm — The All-Knowing (157 times in the Qur'an)
    20. Al-Qābiḍ — The Withholder/Restrainer 
    21. Al-Bāsiṭ — The Expander
    22. Al-Khāfiḍ — The Abaser/Humbler
    23. Ar-Rāfi' — The Exalter
    24. Al-Mu'izz — The Bestower of Honor
    25. Al-Mudhill — The Humiliator
    26. As-Samī' — The All-Hearing (45 times in the Qur'an)
    27. Al-Baṣīr — The All-Seeing (42 times in the Qur'an)
    28. Al-Ḥakam — The Judge
    29. Al-'Adl — The Utterly Just
    30. Al-Laṭīf — The Gentle/ Subtle
    31. Al-Khabīr — The All-Aware (45 times in the Qur'an)
    32. Al-Ḥalīm — The Forbearing (15 times in the Qur'an)
    33. Al-'Aẓīm — The Magnificent
    34. Al-Ghafūr — The All-Forgiving (91 times in the Qur'an)
    35. Ash-Shakūr — The Appreciative
    36. Al-'Aliyy — The Most High
    37. Al-Kabīr — The Most Great
    38. Al-Ḥafīẓ — The Preserver
    39. Al-Muqīt — The Sustainer/ Nourisher
    40. Al-Ḥasīb — The Reckoner
    41. Al-Jalīl — The Majestic
    42. Al-Karīm — The Generous
    43. Ar-Raqīb — The Watchful
    44. Al-Mujīb — The Responsive
    45. Al-Wāsi' — The All-Encompassing
    46. Al-Ḥakīm — The All-Wise (91 times in the Qur'an)
    47. Al-Wadūd — The Most Loving
    48. Al-Majīd — The Most Glorious
    49. Al-Bā'ith — The Resurrector
    50. Ash-Shahīd — The All Witnessing (18 times in the Qur'an)
    51. Al-Ḥaqq — The Absolute Truth (10 times in the Qur'an)
    52. Al-Wakīl — The Trustee (14 times in the Qur'an)
    53. Al-Qawiyy — The Strong
    54. Al-Matīn — The Firm
    55. Al-Waliyy — The Protecting Friend (15 times in the Qur'an)
    56. Al-Ḥamīd — The Praiseworthy (17 times in the Qur'an)
    57. Al-Muḥṣī — The Reckoner of All
    58. Al-Mubdi' — The Originator
    59. Al-Mu'īd — The Restorer
    60. Al-Muḥyī — The Giver of Life
    61. Al-Mumīt — The Bringer of Death
    62. Al-Ḥayy — The Ever-Living
    63. Al-Qayyūm — The Self-Sustaining
    64. Al-Wājid — The Perceiver
    65. Al-Mājid — The Noble/ Illustrius
    66. Al-Wāḥid — The One (22 times in the Qur'an)
    67. Al-Aḥad — The Unique/ The Absolute One
    68. Aṣ-Ṣamad — The Self-Sufficient Refuge
    69. Al-Qādir — The Omnipotent (12 times in the Qur'an)
    70. Al-Muqtadir — The All-Powerful
    71. Al-Muqaddim — The Expediter
    72. Al-Mu'akhkhir — The Delayer
    73. Al-Awwal — The First
    74. Al-Ākhir — The Last
    75. Aẓ-Ẓāhir — The Manifest
    76. Al-Bāṭin — The Hidden
    77. Al-Wālī — The Governor
    78. Al-Muta'ālī — The Most Exalted
    79. Al-Barr — The Source of Goodness
    80. At-Tawwāb — The Accepter of Repentance (11 times in the Qur'an)
    81. Al-Muntaqim — The Avenger
    82. Al-'Afuww — The Pardoner
    83. Ar-Ra'ūf — The Most Kind (11 times in the Qur'an)
    84. Mālik al-Mulk — The Owner of Sovereignty
    85. Dhū al-Jalāli wa-l-Ikrām — Possessor of Majesty and Honor
    86. Al-Muqsiṭ — The Equitable
    87. Al-Jāmi' — The Gatherer
    88. Al-Ghaniyy — The Self-Sufficient (18 times in the Qur'an)
    89. Al-Mughnī — The Enricher
    90. Al-Māni' — The Preventer
    91. Aḍ-Ḍārr — The One Who Can Harm
    92. An-Nāfi' — The Benefactor/Creator of Good
    93. An-Nūr — The Light
    94. Al-Hādī — The Guide
    95. Al-Badī' — The Incomparable Originator
    96. Al-Bāqī — The Everlasting
    97. Al-Wārith — The Inheritor
    98. Ar-Rashīd — The Guide to the Right Path
    99. Aṣ-Ṣabūr — The Timeless/Patient

    The Muslim Law (Sharia) and the Law of God (Fiqh)

    • Wajib/Fard- Obligatory laws
      • Perform prayer five times a day facing the Kaaba in Mecca 
      • Fast during Ramadan
      • Paying Zakat to charity
      • Performing Hajj (pilgrimage) once in lifetime
      • Pray with modesty and reverence
      • Hijab- women wear the traditional hijab as a sign of modesty
    • Mustahabb- Highly recommended practices
      • Give additional to charity
      • Extra prayer outside required times
      • Reading and studying the Qur'an
      • Fasting outside Ramadan
      • Being kind to others
      • Haya- demonstrate modesty and humility
    • Halal- Permissible or lawful practices
      • Meat from permitted animals
      • Sexual relations within marriage
      • Modest dress
      • Recreation that is not sinful
    • Makruh- Discouraged practices
      • Lack of reverence during prayer
      • Excessiveness or wastefulness
      • Being unkind to others
    • Haram- Forbidden violations against Islam Law and God
      • Shirk- Considered the gravest of sin,  associating equals to God
      • Adultery/fornication/sexual relations outside marriage
      • Pork
      • Alcohol
      • Riba- overcharging thru interest or unethical business
        • Gharar- deceptive or uncertain business dealings
      • Maysir- gambling

    Islamic Branches
    • Sunni Islam- Makes up 85% of Muslims. Accepted Abu Baker as the rightful caliph after the death of Muhammed
        • Hanafi (20%) - Follows the teachings of Abu Hanifa with strong focus on the Qur'an and leniency on reasoning
        • Maliki (20%) - Follows the teachings of Malik ibn Anas with focus on traditional customs from Medina
        • Shafi'i (25%) - Follows the teachings of al-Shafi'i and his systematic Islamic Law
        • Hanbali (15%) - Follows the teachings of Ahmad ibn Hanbal that is a little stricter against reasoning
        • Sufism - The mystical and spiritual practice of Islam that focuses on a personal relationship with God 
    • Shi'a Islam- 15% of the Muslims. Believed Ali ibn Abi Talib was the rightful successor since he was direct family of Muhammad and thus rejected Abu Baker. 
      • Twelver Shi'ism (10%)- Muhammad's rightful lineage continued with 12 Imams after Ali ibn Abi Talib. The 12th Imam is considered hidden, and will return near the Day of Judgement
      • Ismailism (5%)- Follows a different line of Imams after Jafar al-Sadiq; deeper spiritual emphasis
      • Zaydi Shi'ism (1%)- Follows the teachings of Zayd ibn Ali who consider the descendants of Ali ibn Abi and his wife Fatimah as the rightful Imams
      • Sufism - The mystical and spiritual practice of Islam that focuses on a personal relationship with God. 
    • Ibadi Islam- 1% of the Muslims that followed the Kharijite movement based mostly out of Oman. They felt the rightful caliph or Imam should not be due to lineage, but rather a strong and pious leader. 

    The Foundational Figures
    • Muhammad (570-632)
      • Became prophet, founder, and leader of Islam
      • Became messenger of God when the Qur'an was revealed to him
      • Established Medina as center of Muslim community
      • Conquered Mecca and established the worship of the Kabba
    • Abu Bakr (573-634)
      • Father-in-law and closest companion of Muhammad
      • First Caliph from 632 to 634
      • Unified Arabia after the death of Muhammad
      • Compiled and preserved the Qur'an
      • Also known as the al-Siddiq (The Truthful)
    • Umar ibn al-Khattab (584-644)
      • Father-in-law and close companion of Muhammad
      • Second caliph (634-644)
      • Conquered large territories of Byzantine and Sasanian Empires
      • Established the Hijri calendar
    • Uthman ibn Affan (576-656)
      • Son-in-law and close companion of Muhammad 
      • He married two of Muhammad's daughters which is why he is also referred to as Dhu al-Nurayn (Possessor of the Two Lights)
      • Third caliph (644-656)
      • Standardized the Qur'an
      • Conquered territories in Northern Africa, Persia, and Central Asia
      • His assassination led to the First Fitna Civil War of Islam
    • Ali ibn Abi Talib (600-661)
      • Son-in-law, cousin, and companion of Muhammad
      • Fourth caliph (656-661)
      • Foundational figure of Shi’a Islam
      • His assassination led to the end of the Fitna Civil War 
    • Aisha (613-678)
      • Wife of Muhammad, daughter of Abu Bakr
      • Major transmitter of Muhammad’s teachings
      • Often referred to as Umm al-Mu'minin (The Mother of Believers)

    The Four Sunni Jurists
    • Abu Hanifa (699-767)
      • Founder of Hanafi jurisprudence
      • Emphasized reason and analogy into Islamic Law
    • Malik ibn Anas (711-795)
      • Founder of Maliki jurisprudence
      • Compiled the Muwatta, one of the earliest traditions of Islamic Law
    • Al-Shafi’i (767-820)
      • Major architect of Islamic jurisprudence
      • Founder of Shafi'i school 
      • Author of the al-Risala, one of the earliest Islamic legal methodologies
    • Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780-855)
      • Founder of Hanbali jurisprudence
      • Major hadith scholar who emphasized faith in Qur'an over reason
      • Author of the Musnad Ahmad, famous Hadith book on the sayings of Muhammad

    Great Islamic Theologians (Mutakallimun)
    • Ja’far al-Sadiq (702-765)
      • Major Shi’a theologian and jurist
      • Sixth Imam of Twelver Shi'a Islam
    • Wasil ibn Ata (699-748)
      • Founder of Mu’tazilite theology
      • A Muslim who commits a major sin is in an intermediate position of believer and nonbeliever
      • Integration of reason and revelation
    • Al-Ash’ari (873-935)
      • Founder of Ash’ari theology
      • God omnipotence and absolute power
      • Qur'an as the uncreated word of God
      • Integration of reason and revelation
    • Al-Maturidi (853-944)
      • Founder of Maturidi theology
      • Reason without revelation
      • Human free will
      • God's power is absolute

    Great Islamic Philosophers (Falasifas)
    • Al-Kindi (800-870)
      • First major Islamic philosopher (Philosopher of the Arabs)
      • Merged Greek Western philosophy with Islamic philosophy
      • Reason and revelation can coexist
      • God as the first and absolute cause
      • The universe is not eternal but was created
      • Also a polymath in mathematics, medicine, astronomy, optics, psychology, cosmology, cryptology, and music theory
    • Al-Farabi (870-950)
      • The Second Master (second only to Aristotle)
      • Advocate of the logical approach
      • Philosophical concepts of causality, principles, metaphysics and the nature of existence
      • The hierarchal process of emanation coming from God as the first cause
      • The Active Intellect as the bridge between potential and actuality
      • Other scientific concepts pertaining to politics, symbology, and music
    • Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037)
      • Distinction between essence and existence
      • Necessary vs contingent existence
      • God as the first cause
      • Metaphysical system of hierarchy, emanation, and Active Intellect
      • The soul as a floating man capable of existing without the physical body
      • Mind and knowledge- Human knowledge begins with sensory experience but develops into wisdom thru practice
      • Other scientific contributions most especially in the field of medicine
    • Al-Ghazali (1058-1111)
      • Theologian, philosopher, jurist, and mystic
      • Critic and skeptic of former Muslim philosophical concepts
      • God produces the effects of causation
      • Reason has limits and is ultimately inferior to revelation
      • Mysticism- early advocate of the Sufi spiritual experience and purification thru ethics
      • Law and theology- Shafi jurist and Ash'arite theologian
    • Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (1126-1198)
      • Defender of Aristotle concepts
      • Reason and revelation cannot contradict one another
      • Support of natural causation against Al-Ghazali's position
      • Eternity of the universe (opposed to it having a beginning moment)
      • Agent knowledge as the moving force that actualizes the potential intellect
      • Law and philosophy- jurist who advocated the use of philosophy in Islamic law
    Great Islamic Mystics
    • Ibn Arabi (1165-1240)
      • Major Sufi mystic and metaphysical thinker
      • God is the ultimate being free of dependence while everything else depends on him
      • Creation as divine manifestations of God
      • The perfect human as a reflection of all of God's attributes (mercy, knowledge, power, love)
      • The human journey towards God requires inner knowledge and awareness of reality
      • Mystical practice and imagination as a higher form of spiritual connection with God

    Most Sacred Sites and Mosques
    • Kaaba / Masjid al-Haram
      • Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
      • Established: 638
      • Significance: The holiest site in Islam; focal point of prayer and pilgrimage. Associated with Abraham and Ishmael and the Hajj.
    • Prophet’s Mosque (Al-Masjid an-Nabawi) 
      • Location: Medina, Saudi Arabia
      • Established: 622 
      • Significance: Muhammad’s mosque and burial place; traditionally regarded as the second-holiest mosque.
    • Al-Aqsa Mosque / Temple Mount 
      • Location: Jerusalem, Israel
      • Established: 7th-8th century
      • Significance: The third-holiest site; associated with Muhammad’s Night Journey and Islam’s early prayer direction. It features the iconic Dome of the Rock as it's centerpiece shrine
    • Mount Arafat (Mountain of Mercy)
      • Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
      • Significance: Central to the Hajj. Pilgrims gather here for the Wuquf, the defining ritual of the pilgrimage.
    • Mina (City of Tents)
      • Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
      • Significance: Major Hajj site where pilgrims stay and perform the ritual stoning of the Jamarat. It is an ancient site also associated with Abraham and his son Ishmael. 
    • Muzdalifah
      • Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
      • Significance: Hajj site where pilgrims spend the night and traditionally collect pebbles for the stoning ritual. Also associated with Abraham
    • Jabal al-Nour / Cave of Hira
      • Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
      • Significance: Traditionally identified as the place where Muhammad received the first revelation from Gabriel.
    • Quba Mosque (Prophet's Mosque)
      • Location: Medina, Saudi Arabia
      • Established: 622
      • Significance: Traditionally regarded as the first mosque established by Muhammad. It has been continuously renovated since 1980
    • Jannat al-Baqi
      • Location: Medina, Saudi Arabia
      • Established: 622 
      • Significance: Historic cemetery containing many companions and members of Muhammad’s family. Much of the original tomb complex was destroyed during the Saudi conquest of Hejaz in 1925
    • Jabal Thawr / Cave of Thawr
      • Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
      • Significance: Associated with Muhammad and Abu Bakr’s hiding place during the Hijra.
    • Great Mosque of Kufa
      • Location: Kufa, Iraw
      • Established: 638-670
      • Regarded as one of the earliest Mosques based in Iraq where the first Shia imams lived (Ali ibn Abi Talib). 
    • Imam Ali Shrine 
      • Location: Najaf, Iraq
      • Established: 786
      • Significance: Traditionally believed to contain the tomb of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad’s cousin, son-in-law, and the first Imam in Shi’a Islam.
    • Imam Husayn Shrine
      • Location: Karbala, Iraq
      • Established: 680
      • Significance: Shrine of Husayn ibn Ali, whose martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala is foundational to Shi’a religious identity.
    • Al-Abbas Shrine
      • Location: Karbala, Iraq
      • Established: 684-685
      • Significance: Dedicated to Abbas ibn Ali, Husayn’s half-brother and companion at the Battle of Karbala.
    • Al-Askari Shrine
      • Location: Samarra, Iraq
      • Established: 944
      • Significance: Associated with the 10th and 11th Shi’a Imams, Ali al-Hadi and Hasan al-Askari. The 12th Imam (Muhammad al-Mahdi) is the unidentified son of Hasan al-Askari that according to tradition is in hiding and will return near judgement day. 
    • Imam Reza Shrine 
      • Location: Mashhad, Iran
      • Established: 818 
      • Significance: Shrine of Ali al-Rida (Imam Reza), the eighth Twelver Shi’a Imam; one of the largest pilgrimage centers in the Shi’a world.
    • Al-Kadhimiya Mosque
      • Location: Baghdad, Iraq
      • Established: 762 (Rebuilt in 1502-1524 under Suleiman the Magnificent) 
      • Significance: Contains the tombs of the seventh and ninth Twelver Imams, Musa al-Kazim and Muhammad al-Jawad.
    • Great Mosque of Kairouan
      • Location: Kairouan, Tunisia
      • Established: 670
      • Significance: One of North Africa’s oldest and most historically important mosques. It marked the beginning of Islam's influence in the North African region referred to as Maghreb.  
    • Umayyad Mosque
      • Location: Damascus, Syria
      • Established: 706-715
      • Significance: One of the great monuments of early Islamic civilization; traditionally associated with the tomb of John the Baptist, that was once a Christian basilica until it was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate.
    • Great Mosque of Córdoba 
      • Location: Cordoba, Spain
      • Established: 785 (1236- Mosque is conquered by Christians; 1523-1599- The Renaissance Cathedral of Cordoba is built within the Mosque complex)
      • Significance: Was once the largest mosques built by Spanish Muslims, until it was captured by the Spanish Christians during the Reconquista. Despite being transformed into a Catholic Church the site still holds importance to Islamic architecture, culture, and history. 
    • Ibrahimi Mosque / Cave of the Patriarchs
      • Location: Hebron, Palestine
      • Established: 100 BC-100 AD (Likely built under Herod the Great)
      • Significance: Revered in Islamic tradition as the burial place of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their families; also sacred to Judaism and Christianity.
    • Hagia Sophia
      • Location: Istanbul, Turkey
      • Established: 537
      • Significance: Former Eastern Orthodox cathedral that became the centerpiece Mosque of the Ottoman Empire after their conquest in 1453. It is considered a monumental landmark of Euro-Asia translated as the Church of Holy Wisdom. 
    • Chora Church
      • Location: Istanbul, Turkey
      • Established: 11th century (reconstructed in the 14th century)
      • Significance: Another iconic Byzantine church that was later converted into a mosque after the 1453 Ottoman conquest. It is most notable for it's architecture and interior frescoes and mosaics. 
    • Selimiye Mosque
      • Location: Edirne, Turkey
      • Established: 1575
      • Significance: Considered a masterpiece of Ottoman architecture with it's massive dome and four iconic minarets. It was commissioned by Sultan Selim II
    • Shah Mosque
      • Location: Isfahan, Iran
      • Established: 1611-1630
      • Significance: It became the central Mosque of the Safavid Empire (Iran) commissioned by the Shah Abbas the Great. It is renown as the greatest work of Persian architecture with it's enormous dome, gate towers, and geometrical wall art. This building helped transform the city of Isfahan into the new religious capital of the Safavid Empire. 
    • Blue Mosque (Sultan Ahmed Mosque)
      • Location: Istanbul, Turkey
      • Established: 1616
      • Significance: Commissioned by Sultan Ahmed it became the greatest mosque of the Ottoman Empire, stealing the spotlight from the Christian built Hagia Sophia. It soars over the city of Istanbul with it's layered domes and 6 tall minarets. Inside the mosque is a massive hall with intricate design patterns and tiles that give off the iconic blue appearance. 
    • Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque
      • Location: Isfahan, Iran
      • Established: 1619
      • Significance: It was commissioned during the reign of Shah Abbas the Great as an example of the golden age of Persian Architecture. It's dome is quite impressive within the massive courtyard of Naqsh-e Jahan Square. However the interior is even more incredible with it's intricate wall patterns, calligraphy, and geographical artwork.   
    • Great Mosque of Samara
      • Location: Samarra, Iraq
      • Established: 848-852
      • Significance: It is considered an ancient wonder of the Muslim world, built during the Abbasid Empire. It's most iconic feature is the massive minaret tower known as the Malwiya. Standing at 171 feet high it was the tallest Mosque of it's time and also the largest with it's enclosed walls. Most of the structure today is in ruins but is still considered an important site to Muslims. 
    • Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque
      • Location: Muscat, Oman
      • Established: 1994-2001
      • Significance: The largest mosque in Oman and considered one of the finest examples of modern Islamic architecture
    • Hassan II Mosque
      • Location: Casablanca, Morocco
      • Established: 1993
      • Significance: Another great work of modern Islamic architecture that overlooks the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean. It is one of the largest Mosques in Africa with an iconic 690 foot tower. It is considered a landmark of Morocco. 
    • Nasir al-Mulk Mosque
      • Location: Shiraz, Iran 
      • Established: 1888
      • Significance: Known as the Pink Mosque it is the central shrine of the historic city of Shiraz and a crowned jewel of Islamic architecture. It is most famous for it's vast collection of stained glass windows that illuminate brilliantly at sunset. 
    • Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque
      • Location: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
      • Established: 2007
      • Significance: It is the central iconic mosque of the modern global city of Abu Dhabi. It looks like something right out of sci-fi movie with it's white marble domes and minarets that resemble pure perfection.  
    • Camlica Mosque
      • Location: Istanbul, Turkey
      • Established: 2019
      • Significance: It is one of the newest works of modern Islamic architecture. It is the largest mosque in the historic city of Istanbul (as well as Turkey). It is perched high up on a hill overlooking the city with it's domes and 6 white minarets. 
    • Tilakari Madrasa
      • Location: Samarkand, Uzbekistan
      • Established: 1646-1660
      • Significance: Translated into the Gilded Madrasa it is the beacon of Islam in Uzbekistan. It serves not only as a grand mosque but also as a university. The interior has a hypnotic design of blue-and-gold patterns.