So carrying on with my study of medieval Bohemia, I'd now like to expand to the history of Central Europe controlled by the Holy Roman Empire. Bohemia was after all not it's own independent kingdom, yet rather a vassal within the Holy Roman Empire. But what exactly was the Holy Roman Empire? I've heard the name since I can remember but hardly understood it's structure. In recent studies I have come to find that it's name is quite misleading. Instead of an Empire it was more-so a union of kingdoms consisting of Germany, Italy, Bohemia, and Burgundy. Therefore it was not a single sovereignty like France, England, the Byzantine, or the Ottoman Empire. It was more so an alliance of kingdoms, on par with NATO or the European Union of modern age.
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The 2nd part of it's name that is rather debatable is the association as a Roman Empire. Since the fall of Rome in 500 AD, Constantine essentially relocated their government to the Byzantine Empire. It became a holy nation based out of Constantinople and had the blessing of the Vatican as the true successors of the Roman Empire. This was rather undisputed for nearly 500 years until Charlemagne was crowned empire by the pope in 800 AD. This was mostly due to political and power shifts, where the Vatican had somewhat lost favor with the Byzantines. So for nearly 700 years there were essentially two emperors in Europe between the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire.
This problem with two Roman emperors, grew into political and theological differences that eventually led to the Great Schism of 1054. By this point Constantinople had established a new form of Orthodox Church in the east. Naturally the Vatican became to side with the western Holy Roman Empire, and even sent crusaders to briefly sack Constantinople in 1204. By this point however the Byzantine Empire was crumbling not so much due to political disputes with the Vatican, yet rather military conquest from the Ottoman Empire. This essentially allowed the Holy Roman Empire to arise as the undisputed imperial realm of the Catholic Church. It was primarily based in Germany, and could be considered as their first Reich (Empire).
So while this is a study of the Holy Roman Empire it will also be a study of Central Europe primarily Germany, Austria, and Czechia. I've written about those nations various times now (see Austrian History, German History, Bohemian History) but have yet to focus on their medieval alliance that was the Holy Roman Empire. Also worth pointing out, that the Holy Roman Empire later became synonymous with the Habsburg Dynasty. By the 1500s it's almost fair to say that the Holy Roman Empire was essentially the network of the Habsburg royalty and monarchs throughout Europe (primarily located in Austria). It also would be fair to consider the Holy Roman Empire a German Empire from 800 to 1500, and then an Austrian one from 1500-1800.
Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire (800-919)
The Germanic barbarians played a crucial role in the collapse of the Roman Empire. They consisted of the Visigoths, the Vandals, the Ostrogoths, and the Franks. The Franks eventually became the most powerful of the Germanic tribes under Clovis I. He united many of the Germanic tribes and converted them to Catholicism. This Frankish Kingdom run by the Merovingian dynasty spread from France, Belgium, Netherlands, and into Germany from 481 to 751 AD. This dynasty came to an abrupt end in 751 when the pope interceded by electing a new king, Pepin the Short of the Carolingian dynasty. In return Pepin helped establish the Papal States, and supported the Vatican's divine right over kings.
This bond between the Franks and the Catholic church was further strengthened when Pepin's son Charlemagne became king in 768. He initiated a successful military campaign throughout Central Europe defeating the Saxons, the Lombards, and the Avars. By 800 AD he had won the total support from the Catholic Church when they crowned him as emperor on Christmas Day. This was a major slap in the face of the Byzantine Empire, who before was seen as the true imperial seat of the church. This marked the beginning of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire (which is also seen as a pre-cursor to the Holy Roman Empire).
Their capital city was located in Aachen (on the border of Belgium and Germany) where they underwent a medieval renaissance during the 800-900s. This was arguably the first major renaissance to occur during the dark ages of Europe after the fall of Rome. This period brought on major advancements in Catholic theology, the arts, and architecture. It also reformed the practice of education, handwriting, and history in the Latin language. Much of the style of manuscript text as we know it today was based off of this Carolingian Miniscule design. The architectural icon of this new age was the Palatine Chapel.
Otto the Great and the Formation of the German Empire (919-1050)
By the mid 800s the Renaissance began to cool as a new civil dispute emerged throughout the Carolingian Empire over the crown. This essentially led to the breakup of Western Francia (the Kingdom of France) and Eastern Francia in 843 in the Treaty of Verdun. The Carolingian Empire was now made up of Eastern Francia in the region of Germany, however were not as strong as before. During the early 900s they suffered continuous raider assaults from the Vikings in the North and the Magyars in the east. The division among the German nobles throughout Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia, Saxony, and Lotharingia continued for some time, until Otto the Great came to power in 936 AD.
Otto the Great quickly ruled with a military agenda, squashing political rebellions from within. He was eventually able to unify all the German nobles and unite against their enemies at the borders, primarily the Hungarian Magyars. Otto achieved a monumental victory at the Battle of Lechfield in 955 AD, which saw him as the new savior of Christianity against the pagan hoards of the east. This finally marked some stability for East Francia where Otto had now ushered in a new era of supremacy in central Europe. He further strengthened his ties with the Papal states, by intervening on a dispute with local Italian enemies. The pope showed his gratitude by crowning Otto as emperor in the Palatine Chapel of Aachen. This is often seen as the official beginning of the Holy Roman Empire which was made up of Germany and northern Italy.
Similar to Charlemagne's earlier reign, Otto's reign brought on another wave of cultural flourishment, known as the Ottonian Renaissance. This was primarily an effort to glorify the newly established Holy Roman Empire as a kingdom of god, and not barbaric pagans. They saw themselves as the true descendants to Caesar's Rome with divine rights. This message was carried across new forms of literature, theology, the arts, architecture, and even theatrical plays. There was even a brief alliance with the Byzantine Empire in 972 AD when Otto II married the Byzantine princess, Theophanu. This also brought a unique merge of eastern and western cultures that emphasized gold and luxury.
The Salian Dynasty and the Investiture Controversy (1024-1125)
By 1024 the Ottonian dynasty came to an end with the death of Saint Henry II who did not have an heir. The crown went to Conrad II from the House of Salian which began a new era within the Holy Roman Empire. Conrad II strengthened the political union of the Empire in 1034 by inheriting the Kingdom of Burgundy. His son Henry III famously interceded on a papal dispute in 1046 where there were 3 different popes at once. He used the imperial muscle of the Holy Roman Empire to appoint his own German Pope Clement II. This marked a sudden shift of power where the Vatican had now become the puppet of the Holy Roman Empire (instead of the other way around).
This change in dynamic was short-lived however when Pope Gregory VII turned on the authority of Henry IV. His claim was that the state should not have divine rights to appoint popes, bishops, and priests. This led to a 50 year debate among the church and the Holy Roman Empire known as the Investiture Controversary. Henry IV was briefly excommunicated by the church and forced to make a walk of shame in 1077 known as the Walk to Canossa. The dispute finally came to an end in 1122 with the Concordat of Worms that agreed in a secular separation between the church and state. This resolution once again restored the influence of the Catholic Church, and removed some of the emperor's claimed sacred status.
The Hohenstaufen Dynasty (1125-1250)
Henry V was able to restore good relations with the papal states, however once again he was left without an heir which brought an end to the Salian Dynasty. This once again created a power vacuum throughout the Holy Roman Empire where there were disputing claims by the Hohenstaufen and Welf dynasties. During this civil fighting the Empire lost support from the pope. The situation was finally restored to balance when Frederick Barbarossa from the Hohenstaufen Dynasty made peace with the Welfs. He thus became the undisputed emperor in 1152 and is often regarded as one of the greatest of the Holy Roman Empires. He reigned for 30 years reestablishing the glory and might of the Holy Roman Empire.
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Prior to Frederick Barbarossa the realm was just referred to as the Roman Empire, however it was Frederick who added the word "Holy" to it. This once again gave them sacred status but also made them quite different from the original Roman Empire. During his reign Frederick I re-enacted Ancient Roman Law (instead of Trail by Combat) and also strengthened his control over Italy by conquering the city of Milan. Barbarossa was often seen as a true crusader and helped organize the Third Crusade on Jerusalem with Philip Augustus (King of France) and Richard the Lionheart (King of England). At the age of 70 Barbarossa achieved a significant victory against the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Iconium in 1190. He however later died by mysteriously drowning in the Saleph River and the Crusader campaign to recapture Jerusalem was lost. However the Teutonic Knights were established to continue Barbarossa's Christian Crusade.
During the 1100-1200s a wave of German migration occurred, known as the Ostsiedlung where Germans began to inhabit the eastern region of Poland and Czechia (known as Silesia and Bohemia). The Kingdom of Bohemia officially became the 4th allied kingdom of the Holy Roman Empire in 1158 when an agreement was reached between Barbarossa and King Vladislaus II. The Hohenstaufen Dynasty oversaw a third renaissance throughout the Holy Roman Empire under the reigns of Frederick Barbarossa and his son Frederick II. Science, law, and logic were put at the forefront of the empire's agenda. Famous German composers such as Hildegard von Bingen and Walther von der Vogelweide rose to such prominence they even advised the emperor. During his reign the iconic Cologne Cathedral broke ground in 1248. Frederick II also continued his father's religious crusade and won back Jerusalem thru peaceful diplomacy with the Muslims. This of course infuriated the Papal States and reignited tension between the two authorities.
The Interregnum and the Golden Bull (1250-1438)
After the death of Frederick II in 1250, the party of the 11th century renaissance came to an abrupt stop without a true heir to carry on. To make matters worse the papacy still had resentment towards the Hohenstaufen Dynasty. The death of Frederick II brought an end to the Hohenstaufen Dynasty and led to a period of civil turmoil within the Holy Roman Empire known as the Interregnum. Warlords, raiders, and bandits once again took hold throughout the kingdom for nearly 60 years. Without proper unification independent cities arose such as Lubeck, Hamburg, and Cologne. These cities even created an alliance known as the Hanseatic League to protect their trade from piracy. During this time the Holy Roman Empire became a de-facto realm in the background, where kingdoms and cities took own more independent roles.
Charles IV not only initiated a golden age of flourishment in Bohemia, but also made significant reforms to the Holy Roman Empire. This was enacted in his Golden Bull of 1356 which became the new constitution of the Empire. In an effort to strengthen the empire's unity thru balance, he established a circle of seven electors to chose the Emperor. The three electors of the church were from Mainz, Trier, and Cologne. While the four secular electors were from Bohemia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saxony, and Bradenburg. He also once again stripped some of the pope's authority in choosing this king of kings, as it was now to be a democratic process.
Rise of the Habsburgs (1438-1517)
The Holy Roman Empire was once again strong throughout the late 1300s with the full support of the church. However following the death of Charles IV, a string of events began to crack away at it's solid facade. The Catholic Church was once again facing another Schism of multiple popes based out of Avignon and Rome. Furthermore a new radical Protestant movement emerged throughout Bohemia led by the theologian Jan Hus. To make matters even more chaotic there was a civil dispute among brothers Wenceslaus and Sigismund for the crown of Bohemia. Sigismund eventually took control of the Holy Roman Empire in 1433, but he continuously faced issues with the Hussite Revolution as well as Ottoman advances in Hungary. Despite some bold visions and victories, Sigismund was unable to continue the Luxembourg Dynasty after his death in 1437.
In his 53-year reign Frederick III's agenda was mostly one of patience and diplomatic dealings. While he didn't so much strengthen the geographical or economic might of the Holy Roman Empire, he did significantly improve the royal network of the Habsburg dynasty. He did this by orchestrating various key marriages throughout Europe, most notably of his son Maximillian with the Princess of Burgundy. This royal marriage network spanned far throughout Europe into Austria, Germany, Portugal, and even the lowlands of Netherlands and Belgium. By this time Vienna, Austria had now become the center of the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburg dynasty had become the most powerful in Europe.
Renaissance and Protestant Reformation (1517-1556)
Frederick III's son Maximillian continued his father's ambition for the family empire when he took to the throne in 1508 at the height of Europe's greatest Renaissance. He established a foothold into Spain's monarchy, which had just recently discovered the new world. Maximillian also used the new invention of the printing press to his advantage to establish propaganda as well as new written laws. He established a new modern government known as the Reichstag in 1495 with a new system of taxes and supreme court. The Holy Roman Empire made various artistic and scientific contributions during this northern renaissance age. This consisted of Guttenberg's printing press, as well as the groundbreaking astronomical theory from Nicolas Copernicus and Johannes Keppler. The artist Albrecht Durer from Nuremberg became famous for his groundbreaking printing techniques.
This scientific revolution that had taken a hold throughout Europe, certainly had it's critics. Most famous of them all was the German priest Martin Luther from the town of Eisleben in Saxony. Luther carried on the earlier movement of Jan Hus by boldly speaking against the Catholic Church. He was primarily targeting it's corruption, and looser morals brought on by the Renaissance and scientific revolution. His movement quickly gained steam and support throughout the Holy Roman Empire and across all of Europe. By 1517 his Protestant Reformation was in full effect and even began to divide some of the Holy Roman Empire from within. Maximillian's son Charles V became emperor in 1519 and declared Luther an outlaw in 1521 with the full support of the Catholic Church.
This movement quickly began to fracture the empire from within and led to various peasant uprisings who supported Luther's ideology. The German Peasants War of 1524-1525 was the most notable of these revolts that led to the execution of nearly 100,000 Germans. In response to this a new political alliance arose within Germany known as the Schmalkaldic League which fully sought to free themselves from the Catholic persecution. The movement also spread into the Netherlands under Calvinism and even into England (just so Henry VIII could officially divorce his wife). Many within this Protestant Reformation began to see the Catholic Church as the enemy. Charles V eventually had to cease his fight against these Protestant heretics due to brewing conflicts with the French and Ottoman. The Peace of Augsburg was passed in 1555 to allow both Catholicism and Luthernism throughout Germany and the Holy Roman Empire.
The Spanish Influence and the Thirty Years War (1556-1648)
Following his Peace of Augsburg, Charles V was simply burnt out due to his dispute with Protestant heretics, the Kingdom of France, and the Ottoman advances under Sulieman the Magnificent. He thus abdicated the throne in 1556 by which the empire was split into two Habsburg monarchs; the Spanish Kingdom under King Philip II which gained influence over Netherlands and the South American colonies, while the Austrian Habsburgs took control of the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. Spain became the new world power, while Ferdinand maintained stability in the Central Europe thru it's political alliances (primarily that of Spain).
By the late 1500s into early 1600s the Protestant movement continued to gain traction through-out central Europe. When Ferdinand II was chosen as King of Bohemia, the Protestants knew he was a Catholic extremist and decided to act. The Protestant nobles famously committed an act of revolution by throwing out Catholic officials from the towers of Prague. This Defenestration of Prague is seen as the start of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) between Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire. This was one of the deadliest wars in human history, by which nearly 50% of the Holy Roman Empire population were killed. Also during this time were plagues, high crime rates, and witch hunts that added to the chaos of the region.
It could be considered as the first major European World War since it began as an internal dispute and quickly snowballed into a balance of power among allies. It is also considered as one of the most significant religious wars between the Catholics and the Protestants. The war has two phases to it, beginning with the religious war from 1618-1635. The Hapsburg monarchy enlisted support from the Spanish Empire and the Catholic Church as they fought against a string of protestant states such as Bohemia, Sweden, Palatinate, Savoy, the Dutch Republic, Denmark, Norway, Prussia, and Saxony. Even the first phase came in various waves, where they conflict continued to escalate.
The conflict began from Bohemia, where Hussites and Protestants sought to break free from the Habsburg's Holy Roman Empire. However they were eventually defeated at the Battle of Cold Mountain in 1620. However King Christian IV of Denmark later decided to intervene in 1625 to rescue his fellow Lutherans against the Habsburgs. The Danish were also defeated in 1629 by the famed general of the Holy Roman Empire, Albrecht von Wallenstein. However at this point yet another Protestant ally emerged from Sweden under the leadership of king Gustavus Adolphus. Sweden began it's assault at the Battle of Breitenfield in 1631 and achieved the first major victory for the Protestants. Gustavus became a Swedish and Protestant hero for this, however died later at the Battle of Lutzen in 1632. Due to the loss of their king, the Swedish army was forced to repel their attack and called for a stalemate. The Protestants then suffered a devastating loss when the army of the Holy Roman Empire sacked Magdeburg and massacred roughly 20,000 civilians.
In 1635 it seemed the alliance of German protestants were defeated and forced to sign the Peace of Prague. The Swedish army was forced to relinquish it's gained territory and retreat. However this is when the war takes a strange political turn. At the time the Swedish Empire was the strongest Protestant state, but they found themselves at a crossroads and made their appeal to the kingdom of France (who happened to be a proud Catholic state). If Sweden was forced to drop out of this fight, the Habsburg would become a total superpower across Europe (controlling Spain, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, and even Scandinavia). The French Cardinal Richelieu realized the significance of this war in terms of power and convinced King Louis XIII that France must face the imperial threat of the Hapsburg dynasty.
Thus the Thirty Years War entered a second phase in 1635 where France waged war on the Holy Roman Empire, allied with the Swedish Empire. Richelieu took total ownership of the French military strategy, quite a rare event in history. He coordinated a multi-front assault in the Netherlands, the eastern Rhine, Italy, and across the Pyrenees against Spain. The French army suffered early defeats primarily against Spain, who almost reached the capital of Paris. However the Swedish and French armies were finally able to sever the Spanish supply line into Italy and Netherlands. Spain had to then turn to it's navy to transport it's resources, which was heavily opposed by the Dutch Navy. By 1640 the mighty Spain began to further lose it's stronghold when both Portugal and Catalonia rebelled against their king.
In 1643 the French army achieved a decisive victory against the Spanish army at the Battle of Rocroi. This essentially marked the end of the Spanish Empire and the golden age of the French Kingdom (under King Louis XIV aka the Sun King). With Spain defeated, the Holy Roman Empire found itself at a great loss and began to pursue peace. Sweden achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Jankau in 1645 in Bohemia but were unable to press their advantage further into the Rhineland and Saxony. By 1648 both sides came to terms at the Peace of Westphalia. Both the French and Swedish kingdoms emerged as new global powers, while the Spanish and Holy Roman Empire under the Hapsburgs got a harsh awakening. The Hasburgs managed to maintain control of their Holy Roman Empire, but from this point on it turned into a fragmented association of independent nations.
Rivalry of Austria and Prussia (1648-1792)
The Habsburgs were able to sustain control of their Holy Roman Empire and continued to strengthen their resolve in Austria. Meanwhile Germany became a zone of independent states and nations that further began to distance themselves from the Austrian controlled empire. By this point it's almost fair to say that the Holy Roman Empire mostly consisted of an Austrian Kingdom and a loosely tied German Confederation. The Habsburgs however were still by no means ready to lose their stronghold on world affairs. They achieved a significant victory over their troublesome neighbors in the east during the Great Turkish War of 1683-1699. Thru this victory they were able to claim new territory in Hungary, Romania, and the Balkans. Ten years later they were once again drawn into a great global conflict with France over the Spanish Succession. After the 30 years war Spain had crumbled to become a puppet of France, and the Hapsburg were eager to reclaim this territory as theirs. This brought on another world war of European alliance vying for power from 1701-1714. Great Britain joined the fight on the side of the Holy Roman Empire, hoping to crush their main rivals of France and become the undisputed global power of the world. A settlement was eventually reached which allowed France to retain the Spanish monarchy, while Austria gained new territory in Italy and Netherlands. Great Britain walked away as the biggest winner while France and Austria had mostly depleted it's resources by this point.
Also by this time, the German kingdom of Prussia had emerged as a new dominant power in Central Europe. King Frederick I strengthened the Prussian finances, infrastructure, and increased the size of their army. After a reign of 30 years both Frederick I and Charles VI died in the same year in 1740, leaving a power vacuum in Central Europe. Frederick the Great had inherited a powerful army from his father and the Holy Roman Empire was essentially his for the taking. This lead to the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) between the Prussian Kingdom and the Holy Roman Empire under Empress Maria Theresa.
Frederick the Great made the first move by striking on the territory of Silesia (Poland). Once again this lead to a domino effect of coalitions that once again vied for power in Europe. This time France and Spain joined with Prussia seeking to further weaken the Habsburg Dynasty. Britain continued to support the Habsburg's however seeking to check France's move for power. The Russian Empire had also begun to emerge as a global power at this time and joined the side of Austria. The war was mostly a stalemate. Prussia was able to retain their control of Silesia, while Austria was able to retain their control of the Holy Roman Empire. The tension between Austria and Prussia however would continue for another hundred years.
Napoleon dismantles the Holy Roman Empire (1792-1806)
By the late 1700s the city of Vienna became the cultural capital of the world. It was most renown as the city of music bringing forth great Baroque and Classical composers such as Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. It was also a revolution of science and education on par with the Enlightenment. By this point the Habsburg Dynasty was constructing a new Austrian identity free from the Imperial Realm of the Holy Roman Empire. Joseph II (son of Maria Theresa) most notably became a patron of the arts and enlightenment throughout his imperial reign in 1765-1790. However these enlighten ideals brought hidden consequences with them which began in America and France.
The French Revolution completely changed the structure of order throughout Europe when the monarchy was completely eliminated. Joseph II was horrified to hear of this reign of terror, which resulted in the beheading of his cousin Marie Antoinette. Naturally all of the monarchy states such as Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia stood against this new dictatorship led by the brilliant general Napoleon. The Austrians faced the most crushing blow of all when they were decisively defeated by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. Considered Napoleon's greatest victory it brought a harsh end to the Holy Roman Empire. Napoleon was eventually defeated ten years later by the British however the damage was done for the Holy Roman Empire.
After lasting for 1000 years, the Holy Roman Empire officially dissolved in 1806. The Habsburgs officially established their own Austrian Empire in 1804 which spanned from Austria into Hungary. Meanwhile Germany became a new Confederation of 39 states from 1815 to 1848. After the fall of Napoleon, Austria and Prussia continued to fight over the control of Germany, until finally Prussia emerged victorious in 1866. This brought about the dawn of the German Empire (The 2nd Reich) which quickly emerged once again as a world power. By the late 1800s into early 1900s the Austrian-Hungarian Empire had mostly become puppet allies of this new German power. Both nations shared one primary thing in common. They were once the core of the powerful Holy Roman Empire.
Four Kingdoms of the Empire
Kingdom of Germany (911-1806)- Bavaria (Southern region)
- Saxony
- Franconia
- Swabia
- Lorraine
- Rhineland
- Westphalia
- Thuringia
- Palatinate
- Bradenburg (Became Prussia)
- Kingdom of Italy (962-1801)
- Lombard
- Piedmont
- Emilia-Romagna
- Liguria
- Milan
- Genoa
- Florence
- Kingdom of Burgundy/Arles (1033-1806)
- Western Switzerland
- Franche-Comte
- Savoy
- Rhone valley
- Netherlands/Belgium
- Kingdom of Bohemia (1198-1806)
- Czech lands
- Moravia
- Silesia
Seven Electors of the Holy Roman Emperor
- Archbishop of Mainz (Chancellor of Germany)
- Archbishop of Cologne (Chancellor of Italy)
- Archbishop of Trier (Chancellor of Burgundy)
- King of Bohemia (Czech lands)
- Count Palatine of the Rhine (western Germany)
- Duke of Saxony (east-central Germany)
- Margrave of Brandenburg (northeast of Germany. Future state
of Prussia)
Key Cities of the Holy Roman Empire
- Aechan (Charlamagne capital from 800-814)
- Regensburg, Bavaria
- Worms, Rhineland
- Mainz (seat of the archbishop)
- Arles (Capital of Burgundy)
- Trier (seat of the archbishop)
- Nuremburg (Capital during Hohenstafuen dynasty)
- Prague (Capital of Bohemia during Charles IV)
- Vienna (Capital during Habsburg era)
- Milan (Flourishing Italian city-state)
- Genoa (Flourishing Italian city-state)
- Florence (Flourishing Italian city-state)
- Augsburg, Bavaria
- Cologne, Rhineland (seat of the archbishop)
- Hamburg (Leader of the Hanseatic League)
- Innsbruck, Austria (political center under Maximillian. Photo to the right)
- Magdeburg. Saxony
- Wroclaw (Silesia)
- Heidelberg (Seat of the Count of Palatine of the Rhine)
- Dresden (Seat of the Duke of Saxony)
- Berlin (Margrave of Brandenburg)
The Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire
CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY (Frankish Empire)
- Charlemagne (800–814)
– Carolingian – Aachen (Frankish)
- Louis I (the
Pious) (814–840) – Carolingian – Aachen
- Lothair I (840–855)
– Carolingian – Middle Francia / Aachen
- Louis II (855–875)
– Carolingian – Italy (Lombardy)
- Charles II (the
Bald) (875–877) – Carolingian – West Francia
- Charles the Fat (881–888)
– Carolingian – East Francia (Germany)
Transitional Shadow Kings
7. Arnulf of
Carinthia (896–899) – East Frankish
8.
Louis the
Child (899–911) – East Frankish
OTTONIAN Dynasty
9. Otto I (the
Great) (962–973) – Saxony
10. Otto II (973–983)
– Saxony
11. Otto III (983–1002)
– Saxony
12. Henry II (1002–1024)
– Bavaria (Saxon by marriage)
SALIAN DYNASTY (Franconian)
- Conrad
II (1024–1039) – Franconia
- Henry
III (1039–1056) – Franconia
- Henry
IV (1056–1106) – Franconia
- Henry
V (1106–1125) – Franconia
SUPPLANTING DYNASTIES (Lotharingian / Saxon Again)
- Lothair
II (Lothair III of Germany) (1125–1137) – Saxony/Lorraine
- Conrad
III (1138–1152) – Hohenstaufen (Swabia)
HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTY (Staufen Dynasty)
- Frederick
I Barbarossa (1155–1190) – Swabia
- Henry
VI (1191–1197) – Swabia/Sicily
- Philip
of Swabia (1198–1208) – Swabia
- Otto
IV (Welf Dynasty) (1209–1215) – Brunswick (Lower Saxony)
- Frederick
II (1220–1250) – Sicily / Swabia
- Henry
(VII) (co‑emperor) – Swabia
(Great Interregnum 1250–1273)
RESTORED EMPIRE — BEGINNING OF HABSBURG ERA
- Rudolf
I (1273–1291) – Habsburg/Austria
- Adolf
of Nassau (1292–1298) – Nassau (Germany)
- Albert
I (1298–1308) – Habsburg/Austria
LUXEMBOURG DYNASTY
- Henry
VII (1312–1313) – Luxembourg
- Charles
IV (1355–1378) – Bohemia (Prague)
- Wenceslaus (1378–1400)
– Bohemia
- Sigismund (1410–1437)
– Bohemia/Hungary
EARLY HABSBURG RISE (Second Habsburg Phase)
- Albert
II (1438–1439) – Austria/Bohemia/Hungary
- Frederick
III (1452–1493) – Austria
- Maximilian
I (1508–1519) – Austria
THE HABSBURG-SPANISH IMPERIAL PHASE
- Charles
V (1519–1556) – Spain/Netherlands/Austria
AUSTRIAN HABSBURGS — (1556–1806)
- Ferdinand
I (1556–1564) – Austria/Bohemia/Hungary
- Maximilian
II (1564–1576) – Austria
- Rudolf
II (1576–1612) – Austria/Bohemia (Prague capital)
- Matthias (1612–1619)
– Austria
- Ferdinand
II (1619–1637) – Austria (Thirty Years’ War)
- Ferdinand
III (1637–1657) – Austria
- Leopold
I (1658–1705) – Austria
- Joseph
I (1705–1711) – Austria
- Charles
VI (1711–1740) – Austria
- Charles
VII (Wittelsbach) (1742–1745) – Bavaria (ONLY non-Habsburg in 300
years)
- Francis
I (1745–1765) – Austria (Habsburg‑Lorraine)
- Joseph
II (1765–1790) – Austria
- Leopold
II (1790–1792) – Austria
- Francis
II (1792–1806) – Austria
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Norway
United States
Netherlands
Italy*
Germany
France
Sweden
Switzerland
Austria
Japan
Canada
China
South Korea
Australia
Great Britain
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Spain
Brazil
Kazakhstan
Poland
New Zealand
Finland
Latvia
Denmark
Estonia
Georgia
Individual Neutral Athletes[A][B]
Bulgaria
Belgium
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