Theological Study: Islam

In preparation for my trip to Istanbul, Turkey next week I've been drawn to a study of Islam the last few weeks. This quite naturally spawned from my long study of Christian theology and philosophy. I made my first deep dive into Middle Eastern history in the winter of 2023-2024 while playing the video game Assassin's Creed Mirage. It was then that I made my first study on the prophet Muhammed and his influence across Arabia from 610-631 AD. I remember being quite surprised with two things about Islam; the first being that it emerged 600 years after Christianity; but second is the incredible speed of it's spread across the Middle East. While Christianity took about 300 years to get properly established in Rome, Islam took only 70 years to become the main religion of the Middle East and Northern Africa.

I already covered much of the history on the rise of Islam here; Golden Age of Islam, so wont spend much time on this topic. I would however like to touch upon the foundational elements and the evolution that led to its emergence. I actually also touched upon this topic 2 years ago in my study on Middle Eastern Mythology (see Study of Mesopotamian Mythology). I found that many of these ancient empires such as Sumer, Egypt, Akkadian, Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia established some of the earliest forms of organized religion (even though they were mostly polytheistic). It's fair to say they helped influence the major monotheistic religions of Judaism and Zoroastrianism by around 1000 BC. These religions were later reformed by the movements of Christianity and subsequently that of Islam, which will be my focus now.

Islam is considered one of the three Abrahamic religions alongside Judaism and Christianity. Their roots are aligned with the Hebrew Old Testament that holds Abraham as their patriarch. However the divergence occurs with the children of Abraham, where the Jews become descendants of Isaac while the Muslims become descendants of Ishmael. One important thing to emphasize however is that the Ishmaelites were NOT an established religion (even though the Jews referred to them as such). Another very important detail of early Islamic tradition is that Abraham takes his son Ishmael from Israel to Mecca where they establish the Kaaba. The Jewish book of Genesis does not mention this detail however and briefly states that Hagar and Ishmael are sent away from Israel to the wilderness of Paran (the Sinai region of Egypt).

Since I love tracing the historical timeline of the Old Testament tradition, let's presume that Ishmael arrived to Mecca from Israel around 2000-1800 BC. At this point the region of Arabia did not have a dominant religion, yet practiced various forms of polytheistic practices. So the obvious question here is why didn't Ishmael's monotheistic belief of the Abrahamic God spread like it did in Israel for the Jews? The Islamic answer is that it was simply corrupted by the polytheistic idolatry of it's time. It was not until the arrival of the prophet Muhammed that this Abrahamic religion was restored in Arabia. At the time of Muhammed's arrival in 600 AD, the region of Arabia was influenced by Judaism, Christianity, Arabian polytheism, and Zoroastrianism (from the Persian Empire). However I would make the case that the emergence of Islam was primarily a response to the spread of Christianity. Muhammed presented a major reform to Christianity that became it's own religion, which eventually became the 2nd largest religion in the world. 

The Qur'an

Just as with the Jewish Torah or the Christian Bible, the Islamic Qur'an is the primary source of their religious tradition. It's origins are actually quite unique from the other two books however in that is considered a pure revelation. Whereas the Torah and the Bible have multiple sources such as Moses, David, and the apostles, the Qur'an was all recorded by one person; the prophet Muhammed. According to tradition Muhammed received the first revelation from the angel Gabriel in 610 AD and continuously for the next 23 years. These revelations were thus recited and shared amongst his followers which grew into the written text of the Qur'an. Following Muhammed's death in 632, the oral traditions were preserved by Abu Bakr into a complete codex, organized by the scribe Zayd ibn Thabit. This collection of written text became properly standardized into the Quran during the reign of third caliph Uthman from 644-656. 

The structure of the Qur'an is quite different from the chronological ordering of the Bible. Its dictation is pure poetic praise and devotion of God, almost on par with the Psalms. Throughout its 114 chapters (known as Surahs), the book addresses theology, morality, Islamic law, traditional biblical stories, worship, judgement, and so forth. It is seen more as a guide for humanity rather then a collection of stories. These stories pertain to the biblical narratives of Adam, Abraham, Moses, and even Jesus. However each of these narratives are used as a moral lesson in their relation and connection to the authority of God. The book is held in the highest of regards since it is considered the literal words of God, reveled to the messenger Muhammed. Aside from it's theological significance it is also highly revered as one of the finest works of literature, with pure beautiful poetry.     

Theological Differences from Christianity

1. Muslims believe there is only one God (referred to as Allah). Although this is the same God of Abraham followed by the Jews and Christians the key difference is the interpretation of that God. The Muslims strongly reject the Christian Trinity concept which holds that God is three persons (God, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit). 
   
2. 
   Muslims believe Muhammed was the messenger of God and the final prophet. He received the revelation from God which became the Qur'an. The Christian Bible however makes no mention of Muhammed. 
3. Muslims believe Jesus Christ is not the begotten divine son of God and reject the concept of Incarnation. They still hold him in high regards as the great human prophet and messiah. 
4. Muslims believe Jesus Christ was not crucified, and did not die at all. 
5. Muslims believe Jesus Christ did not ascend into heaven by his own power, rather he was raised into heaven by God (similar to the Assumption of Mary).
6. The role of Joseph as the husband of Mary is completely nonexistent in Islam tradition.
7. The Holy Spirit is NOT the third person of the trinity and is often associated to the angel Gabriel (as God's messenger).
8. Jesus received a revelation from God (known as the Injil). The New Testament is the revelation of Jesus and NOT the apostles (most notably Peter, Paul, or John). Although Islam recognizes the disciples of Christ, they do not consider them as the divine messengers of God.  
9. Christian theology puts heavy emphasis on the inherited Original Sin where all humanity are born as sinners and salvation comes purely through God's grace. However Muslims reject this concept and emphasize we are born with a clean slate Salvation comes through faith, repentance, righteousness, and God's mercy. 
10. Christian theology puts heavy emphasis on the atonement of sin through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Islam rejects that Christ died for the sins of humanity. 

Theological Similarities with Christianity

1. 
   Both believe in the same God of Abraham who created the heavens and the earth.
2. Both believe in Satan as the ruler of evil.
   
3. Both believe in the Old Testament. Muslims consider the Old Testament as a genuine revelation from God. Although some of the details vary, they believe in all it's central figures and narratives pertaining to Adam, Eve, Noah, Abraham, Jacob, Isaac, Solomon, David, etc. Islam however puts higher emphasis on Abraham and his son Ishmael as the prophets of God. They also hold that the Kabbah was built by Abraham and Ishmael.
4. Both Christians and Muslims share a strong belief in the angels, most notably Gabriel and Michael.
5. Both religions give high regards to John the Baptist as the prophet of God.
6. Both religions give high regards to the Virgin Mary, as the virgin mother of Jesus Christ. 
7. The Virgin Mary was visited by the angel Gabriel, who told her she would carry the messiah. She then gave birth to Jesus Christ thru a miraculous conception. (However Joseph is not mentioned in the Qur'an). 
8. Both religions believe in the afterlife of heave and hell. 
9. Both believe in the soul and a spiritual realm. 
10. Muslims regard Jesus Christ as the Messiah who will return again to judge the living and the dead. 

Ecclesiastic Differences

1. Islam does not have a central governing authority like the Papal See or Magisterium. 
2. Muslims do not practice the sacraments (Most notably the Eucharist). However they do practice repentance through individual atonement (known as tawbah). 
   
3. Muslims pray 5 times a day (known as the salat)
4. 
   They have a weekly communal mosque service known as the Jumu'ah which occurs on Friday. It consists of the ritual Salat prayer, as well as a sermon from the imam (Islamic scholar). It is quite different from the Christian Sunday Mass Service in that there is no Eucharistic liturgy.
5. Islam tradition strongly bans the display of icons depicting God or the prophets. Instead mosques are covered with intricate patterns, calligraphy, and geometrical artwork. Christians on the other hand rely heavily on iconography (Most notably the Eastern Orthodox Church, even though they did briefly ban images for a while during the Byzantine Iconoclasm).
6. It is required that all Muslims contribute 2.5% of their earnings to charity. This is not an optional clause like the Christian's Sunday collection. 
7. It is required that all Muslims make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during their lifetime (known as the Hajj).   
8. During the holy season of Ramadan, Muslims must fast from sunrise to sunset. This is a much stricter discipline then the Catholic Lenten tradition of giving something up and no meat on Fridays.  
9. Women and men are required to dress modestly in public. The Hijab is the most common form of headscarf for a woman to wear. 
10. Alcohol is strictly prohibited in Islam. Whereas in the Catholicism, the wine is considered part of the Eucharist sacrament. 

The Historical Timeline

• 570- Muhammad is born
• 
  610- Muhammad receives the Revelation of the Quar'an from the angel Gabriel
• 622- Muhammad establishes the Muslim community of Medina
  
• 630- Muhammad and the Muslims conquer the sacred city of Mecca and claim the ancient Kabba
• 632- Muhammad dies
• 632-661- Four Rashidun "Rightly Guided" Caliphs
• 656-661- First Fitna Muslim Civil War over Ali's Caliphate. Ali is assassinated
• 661-750- Umayyad Caliphate expands Muslim territory from Spain to India (the zenith of their territorial empire)
• 680- Husayn is assassinated (son of Ali and grandson of Muhammad)
• 8th century- Sunni/Shi'ite schism further develops
• 9th to 12th century- Golden Age of Islam (centered in Baghdad)
• 1095- The Crusades- Christians launch a series of military campaigns against the Muslims, but ultimately fail to take back their Holy Land
• 11th to 13th century- Sufism movement begins to develop
• 1258- Baghdad falls to the Mongols
• 1517-1924- Ottoman Caliphate
• 1924-present- Modern day Islam  

5 Pillars of the Faith

• 
  Shahada- Belief in God and the prophet Muhammed. "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammed is the messenger of Allah". 
  

• Salat- Daily prayer to Allah. This must occur five times a day, facing the Kabba in Mecca. This is a structured form of bowing and prostration. They have a weekly communal service of prayer on Fridays known as the Jumu'ah

• Zakat- Give to charity. This is not optional but an obligatory 2.5% of one's earnings given to the poor

• Sawm- Fasting. During the 30-day season of Ramadan fasting is expected from sunrise to sunset

• Hajj- Pilgrimage. Every Muslim should make a Pilgrimage to the Mecca at least once in their lifetime

6 Articles of the Faith

• Belief in God (Allah)- Allah is the one true and eternal God. Creator of everything. The Supreme Authority. Absolute Monotheism

• Belief in the Angels- The angels are the messengers of God, who serve according to his will.
• Jibril (Gabriel)- Angel of Revelation. He delivered revelation to the prophets, the Nativity Story, and most importantly he delivered the Qur'an to Muhammad
• Mika'il (Michael)- Angel of Provision and Nature. He is associated with God's creation and the natural order of the universe.
• Israfil- Angel of the Trumpet. He will blow the trumpet that announces the Day of Resurrection
• Azrael- Angel of Death. He is like the grim reaper who collects souls upon death and escorts them to the afterlife
• Munkar & Nakir- They judge the faith of the dead while in their graves
• Malik- Guardian of Jahannam (Hell)
• Harut & Marut- Mentioned in a story in the Qur'an pertaining to Babylon and magic
• Kiraman Katibin- The Noble Recorders who archive people's good deeds

• 
  Belief in the Revealed Books- These are the sacred scriptures revealed by the word of God
• Qur'an- God's final revelation delivered to Muhammad
• Tawrat (Torah)- God's revelation delivered to Moses and the Jews
• Zabur (Psalms)- God's revelation delivered to David
• Ingil (Gospels)- God's revelation delivered thru the prophet Jesus Christ

• Belief in the Prophets and Messengers
  
• Muhammad- The final prophet and messenger of God who received God's revelation in the Qur'an. He established the Islam faith and ascended into heaven.
• Jesus Christ- The great prophet and Messiah of God. Conceived miraculously by Virgin Mary. Performed miracles and taught of salvation thru the revelation of God's Gosepls. He did not die or resurrect, rather was raised up into heaven. His second coming will mark the Day of Judgement. He is NOT considered the son or substance of God.
• John the Baptist- Prophet who paved the way for Jesus Christ
• Solomon- Prophet and King famous for his wisdom
• David- Prophet and King who received the revelation of the Psalms
• Moses- Chosen by God to free the Israelites from Egyptian captivity
• Ishmael- Son of Abraham and Father of the Muslims. Helped build the Kabba with his father Abraham. 
• Abraham- Chosen by God to serve as patriarch of humanity and the New Covenant. Built the Kabba in Mecca
• Noah- Chosen by God to save life from destruction
• Adam and Eve- First humans created by God

• Belief in the Day of Judgement- Human beins will be judged on the final day and sent to eternal Jannah or Jahannam (Heaven and Hell)

• Belief in the Divine Decree (al-Qadar)- God has complete knowledge of everything that happens. Humans are responsible for their free will, which happens according to God's will and foreknowledge

Muslim Concepts and Practices

• 
  Ramadan- Sacred month of fasting. 30 day period associated with the revelation of the Qur'an to Muhammad. During this season, Muslims are expected to fast from sunrise to sunset. 
  

• Hadith- theological reports and doctrines about Muhammad. These pertain to the teachings of Muhammad and are considered supplementary literature to the Quran. 

• Sunnah- To live one's life in accordance to the example set forth by Muhammad. 

• Tawhid- Oneness of God. Absolute monotheism. Creator of all things. This strongly rejects the Trinitarian concept. 

• Hijra- Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina. This marks the beginning of the Islamic calender. 

• Isra Muhammad's famous Night Journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (often depicted as riding a heavenly creature known as the al-Buraq). This was prior to his trip to Medina in 622.

• Mir'aj- Muhammad's Ascension into heaven. Following his Isra to Jerusalem, he is raised up into heaven by God and meets him at the Sidrat al-Muntaha (Lote Tree of the Utmost Boundary). While in heaven he meets Adam, Jesus, John the Baptist, Idris, Aaron, Moses, and Abraham. This is not in the Qur'an but is depicted in Hadith tradition.

• Shirk- Associating equals to God, like a form of idolatry or polytheism. This is the opposite of Tawhid and considered the gravest of sins in Islam

• Taqwa- Mindfulness of God. To be constantly aware and conscious of God's presence and his will.

• Jihad- Striving to follow the path of God. Living in accordance to his will. Not to be mistaken for a holy war. 

• Tawbah- Repentance to God. An individual process of sincere purification. Seeking to ask forgiveness, turn away from sin, and return to God. 

• Imam- A religious scholar and leader of a communal prayer (like a priest). 

• 
  Hijab- It is a headscarf worn by women to display modesty in public. It is considered an obligatory Muslim Law
  

• Barzakh- The intermediate state after death, where the soul awaits the final judgement where they are sent to heaven or hell. This is considered like a form of purgatory where the soul goes on, and is questioned by the angels Munkar and Nakir

• Jahannam- After Judgement Day the spirits of the damned are sent to Hell. Islam holds that this is not an eternal state and that some may still achieve salvation thru God's grace. 

• Jannah- After Judgement Day the spirits of the righteous are reunited with their earthly bodies and sent to Paradise/Heaven

• Kaaba- The most sacred relic of Islam, that consists of a black cubed box located in Mecca. It is often associated as the first place of worship built by Abraham and his son Ishmael. 

• Hajar al-Aswad (Black Stone)- Located within the Kaaba is the Black Stone. According to tradition it was given to Muhammad as a white stone, but later turned black as a symbol of humanity's sins. 

• Ummah- The worldwide community of Muslims

99 Divine Names of God

While it is ultimately impossible to comprehend the infinitude of God, Islamic tradition offers a list of names to help describe his nature. These are all attributes of God that describe his divine qualities. They are mostly found in the Qur'an as well as other Islamic Hadith traditions. The Qur'an encourages the use of these poetic names, in verse 7:180 "To Allah belong the Most Beautiful Names, so call upon him by name". The number 99 comes from Haith tradition where Muhammad states, "Allah has ninety-nine names, one hundred minus one; whoever enumerates them will enter Paradise". This list became standardized throughout the 9th century by Islam scholars (such as Jami al-Tirmidhi). It has been widely used to this day as a poetic way to give praise, gratitude, and glorification to God. 

1. Ar-Raḥmān — The Most Gracious (114 times; in the opening Bismillah of each chapter)
2. Ar-Raḥīm — The Most Merciful (114 times; in the opening Bismillah of each chapter)
3. Al-Malik — The King 
4. Al-Quddūs — The Most Holy 
5. As-Salām — The Source of Peace
6. Al-Mu'min — The Giver of Faith
7. Al-Muhaymin — The Protector/Guardian/Overseer
8. Al-'Azīz — The Almighty One (92 times in the Qur'an)
9. Al-Jabbār — The Compeller/Restorer
10. Al-Mutakabbir — The Supreme/Majestic
11. Al-Khāliq — The Creator 
    
12. Al-Bāri' — The Originator
13. Al-Muṣawwir — The Fashioner
14. Al-Ghaffār — The Great Forgiver
15. Al-Qahhār — The Subduer
16. 
    Al-Wahhāb — The Bestower
17. Ar-Razzāq — The Provider
18. Al-Fattāḥ — The Opener/Granter of Victory
19. Al-'Alīm — The All-Knowing (157 times in the Qur'an)
    
20. Al-Qābiḍ — The Withholder/Restrainer 
21. Al-Bāsiṭ — The Expander
22. Al-Khāfiḍ — The Abaser/Humbler
23. Ar-Rāfi' — The Exalter
24. Al-Mu'izz — The Bestower of Honor
25. Al-Mudhill — The Humiliator
26. As-Samī' — The All-Hearing (45 times in the Qur'an)
27. Al-Baṣīr — The All-Seeing (42 times in the Qur'an)
28. Al-Ḥakam — The Judge
29. Al-'Adl — The Utterly Just
30. Al-Laṭīf — The Gentle/ Subtle
31. Al-Khabīr — The All-Aware (45 times in the Qur'an)
32. Al-Ḥalīm — The Forbearing (15 times in the Qur'an)
33. Al-'Aẓīm — The Magnificent
34. Al-Ghafūr — The All-Forgiving (91 times in the Qur'an)
35. Ash-Shakūr — The Appreciative
36. Al-'Aliyy — The Most High
37. Al-Kabīr — The Most Great
38. Al-Ḥafīẓ — The Preserver
39. Al-Muqīt — The Sustainer/ Nourisher
40. Al-Ḥasīb — The Reckoner
41. Al-Jalīl — The Majestic
42. Al-Karīm — The Generous
43. Ar-Raqīb — The Watchful
44. 
    Al-Mujīb — The Responsive
45. Al-Wāsi' — The All-Encompassing
46. Al-Ḥakīm — The All-Wise (91 times in the Qur'an)
47. Al-Wadūd — The Most Loving
48. Al-Majīd — The Most Glorious
49. Al-Bā'ith — The Resurrector
50. Ash-Shahīd — The All Witnessing (18 times in the Qur'an)
51. Al-Ḥaqq — The Absolute Truth (10 times in the Qur'an)
52. Al-Wakīl — The Trustee (14 times in the Qur'an)
53. Al-Qawiyy — The Strong
54. Al-Matīn — The Firm
55. Al-Waliyy — The Protecting Friend (15 times in the Qur'an)
56. Al-Ḥamīd — The Praiseworthy (17 times in the Qur'an)
57. Al-Muḥṣī — The Reckoner of All
58. Al-Mubdi' — The Originator
59. Al-Mu'īd — The Restorer
60. Al-Muḥyī — The Giver of Life
61. Al-Mumīt — The Bringer of Death
    
62. Al-Ḥayy — The Ever-Living
63. Al-Qayyūm — The Self-Sustaining
64. Al-Wājid — The Perceiver
65. Al-Mājid — The Noble/ Illustrius
66. Al-Wāḥid — The One (22 times in the Qur'an)
67. Al-Aḥad — The Unique/ The Absolute One
68. Aṣ-Ṣamad — The Self-Sufficient Refuge
69. Al-Qādir — The Omnipotent (12 times in the Qur'an)
    
70. Al-Muqtadir — The All-Powerful
71. Al-Muqaddim — The Expediter
72. Al-Mu'akhkhir — The Delayer
73. Al-Awwal — The First
74. Al-Ākhir — The Last
75. Aẓ-Ẓāhir — The Manifest
76. Al-Bāṭin — The Hidden
77. Al-Wālī — The Governor
78. 
    Al-Muta'ālī — The Most Exalted
79. Al-Barr — The Source of Goodness
80. At-Tawwāb — The Accepter of Repentance (11 times in the Qur'an)
81. Al-Muntaqim — The Avenger
82. Al-'Afuww — The Pardoner
83. Ar-Ra'ūf — The Most Kind (11 times in the Qur'an)
84. Mālik al-Mulk — The Owner of Sovereignty
85. Dhū al-Jalāli wa-l-Ikrām — Possessor of Majesty and Honor
86. Al-Muqsiṭ — The Equitable
87. Al-Jāmi' — The Gatherer
88. Al-Ghaniyy — The Self-Sufficient (18 times in the Qur'an)
89. Al-Mughnī — The Enricher
90. Al-Māni' — The Preventer
91. Aḍ-Ḍārr — The One Who Can Harm
92. An-Nāfi' — The Benefactor/Creator of Good
93. An-Nūr — The Light
94. Al-Hādī — The Guide
95. Al-Badī' — The Incomparable Originator
96. Al-Bāqī — The Everlasting
97. Al-Wārith — The Inheritor
98. Ar-Rashīd — The Guide to the Right Path
99. Aṣ-Ṣabūr — The Timeless/Patient

The Muslim Law (Sharia) and the Law of God (Fiqh)

• Wajib/Fard- Obligatory laws
• 
  Perform prayer five times a day facing the Kaaba in Mecca 
  
• Fast during Ramadan
• Paying Zakat to charity
• Performing Hajj (pilgrimage) once in lifetime
• Pray with modesty and reverence
• Hijab- women wear the traditional hijab as a sign of modesty
• Mustahabb- Highly recommended practices
• Give additional to charity
• Extra prayer outside required times
• Reading and studying the Qur'an
• Fasting outside Ramadan
• Being kind to others
• Haya- demonstrate modesty and humility
• Halal- Permissible or lawful practices
• Meat from permitted animals
• Sexual relations within marriage
• Modest dress
• Recreation that is not sinful
• Makruh- Discouraged practices
• Lack of reverence during prayer
• Excessiveness or wastefulness
• Being unkind to others
• Haram- Forbidden violations against Islam Law and God
• Shirk- Considered the gravest of sin,  associating equals to God
• Adultery/fornication/sexual relations outside marriage
• Pork
• Alcohol
• Riba- overcharging thru interest or unethical business
• Gharar- deceptive or uncertain business dealings
• Maysir- gambling

Islamic Branches

• 
  Sunni Islam- Makes up 85% of Muslims. Accepted Abu Baker as the rightful caliph after the death of Muhammed
  
• Hanafi (20%) - Follows the teachings of Abu Hanifa with strong focus on the Qur'an and leniency on reasoning
• Maliki (20%) - Follows the teachings of Malik ibn Anas with focus on traditional customs from Medina
• Shafi'i (25%) - Follows the teachings of al-Shafi'i and his systematic Islamic Law
• Hanbali (15%) - Follows the teachings of Ahmad ibn Hanbal that is a little stricter against reasoning
• Sufism - The mystical and spiritual practice of Islam that focuses on a personal relationship with God 
• Shi'a Islam- 15% of the Muslims. Believed Ali ibn Abi Talib was the rightful successor since he was direct family of Muhammad and thus rejected Abu Baker. 
• Twelver Shi'ism (10%)- Muhammad's rightful lineage continued with 12 Imams after Ali ibn Abi Talib. The 12th Imam is considered hidden, and will return near the Day of Judgement
• Ismailism (5%)- Follows a different line of Imams after Jafar al-Sadiq; deeper spiritual emphasis
• Zaydi Shi'ism (1%)- Follows the teachings of Zayd ibn Ali who consider the descendants of Ali ibn Abi and his wife Fatimah as the rightful Imams
• Sufism - The mystical and spiritual practice of Islam that focuses on a personal relationship with God. 
• Ibadi Islam- 1% of the Muslims that followed the Kharijite movement based mostly out of Oman. They felt the rightful caliph or Imam should not be due to lineage, but rather a strong and pious leader. 

The Foundational Figures

• Muhammad (570-632)
• Became prophet, founder, and leader of Islam
• Became messenger of God when the Qur'an was revealed to him
• Established Medina as center of Muslim community
• Conquered Mecca and established the worship of the Kabba
• Abu Bakr (573-634)
• 
  Father-in-law and closest companion of Muhammad
• First Caliph from 632 to 634
• Unified Arabia after the death of Muhammad
• Compiled and preserved the Qur'an
• Also known as the al-Siddiq (The Truthful)
• Umar ibn al-Khattab (584-644)
  
• Father-in-law and close companion of Muhammad
• Second caliph (634-644)
• Conquered large territories of Byzantine and Sasanian Empires
• Established the Hijri calendar
• Uthman ibn Affan (576-656)
• Son-in-law and close companion of Muhammad 
• He married two of Muhammad's daughters which is why he is also referred to as Dhu al-Nurayn (Possessor of the Two Lights)
• Third caliph (644-656)
• Standardized the Qur'an
• Conquered territories in Northern Africa, Persia, and Central Asia
• His assassination led to the First Fitna Civil War of Islam
• Ali ibn Abi Talib (600-661)
• Son-in-law, cousin, and companion of Muhammad
• Fourth caliph (656-661)
• Foundational figure of Shi’a Islam
• His assassination led to the end of the Fitna Civil War 
• Aisha (613-678)
• Wife of Muhammad, daughter of Abu Bakr
• Major transmitter of Muhammad’s teachings
• Often referred to as Umm al-Mu'minin (The Mother of Believers)

The Four Sunni Jurists

• Abu Hanifa (699-767)
  
• 
  Founder of Hanafi jurisprudence
• Emphasized reason and analogy into Islamic Law
• Malik ibn Anas (711-795)
• Founder of Maliki jurisprudence
• Compiled the Muwatta, one of the earliest traditions of Islamic Law
• Al-Shafi’i (767-820)
• Major architect of Islamic jurisprudence
• Founder of Shafi'i school 
• Author of the al-Risala, one of the earliest Islamic legal methodologies
• Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780-855)
• Founder of Hanbali jurisprudence
• Major hadith scholar who emphasized faith in Qur'an over reason
• Author of the Musnad Ahmad, famous Hadith book on the sayings of Muhammad

Great Islamic Theologians (Mutakallimun)

• Ja’far al-Sadiq (702-765)
• 
  Major Shi’a theologian and jurist
  
• Sixth Imam of Twelver Shi'a Islam
• Wasil ibn Ata (699-748)
• Founder of Mu’tazilite theology
• A Muslim who commits a major sin is in an intermediate position of believer and nonbeliever
• Integration of reason and revelation
• Al-Ash’ari (873-935)
• Founder of Ash’ari theology
• God omnipotence and absolute power
• Qur'an as the uncreated word of God
• Integration of reason and revelation
• Al-Maturidi (853-944)
• Founder of Maturidi theology
• Reason without revelation
• Human free will
• God's power is absolute

Great Islamic Philosophers (Falasifas)

• Al-Kindi (800-870)
• First major Islamic philosopher (Philosopher of the Arabs)
• Merged Greek Western philosophy with Islamic philosophy
• Reason and revelation can coexist
• God as the first and absolute cause
• The universe is not eternal but was created
• Also a polymath in mathematics, medicine, astronomy, optics, psychology, cosmology, cryptology, and music theory
• 
  Al-Farabi (870-950)
  
• The Second Master (second only to Aristotle)
• Advocate of the logical approach
• Philosophical concepts of causality, principles, metaphysics and the nature of existence
• The hierarchal process of emanation coming from God as the first cause
• The Active Intellect as the bridge between potential and actuality
• Other scientific concepts pertaining to politics, symbology, and music
• Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037)
• Distinction between essence and existence
• Necessary vs contingent existence
• God as the first cause
• Metaphysical system of hierarchy, emanation, and Active Intellect
• The soul as a floating man capable of existing without the physical body
• Mind and knowledge- Human knowledge begins with sensory experience but develops into wisdom thru practice
• Other scientific contributions most especially in the field of medicine
• Al-Ghazali (1058-1111)
• Theologian, philosopher, jurist, and mystic
• Critic and skeptic of former Muslim philosophical concepts
• God produces the effects of causation
• Reason has limits and is ultimately inferior to revelation
• Mysticism- early advocate of the Sufi spiritual experience and purification thru ethics
• Law and theology- Shafi jurist and Ash'arite theologian
• Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (1126-1198)
• Defender of Aristotle concepts
• Reason and revelation cannot contradict one another
• Support of natural causation against Al-Ghazali's position
• Eternity of the universe (opposed to it having a beginning moment)
• Agent knowledge as the moving force that actualizes the potential intellect
• Law and philosophy- jurist who advocated the use of philosophy in Islamic law

Great Islamic Mystics

• Ibn Arabi (1165-1240)
  
• Major Sufi mystic and metaphysical thinker
• God is the ultimate being free of dependence while everything else depends on him
• Creation as divine manifestations of God
• The perfect human as a reflection of all of God's attributes (mercy, knowledge, power, love)
• The human journey towards God requires inner knowledge and awareness of reality
• Mystical practice and imagination as a higher form of spiritual connection with God

Most Sacred Sites and Mosques

• Kaaba / Masjid al-Haram
  
• 
  Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
• Established: 638
• Significance: The holiest site in Islam; focal point of prayer and pilgrimage. Associated with Abraham and Ishmael and the Hajj.
• Prophet’s Mosque (Al-Masjid an-Nabawi) 
  
• Location: Medina, Saudi Arabia
• Established: 622 
• Significance: Muhammad’s mosque and burial place; traditionally regarded as the second-holiest mosque.
• Al-Aqsa Mosque / Temple Mount 
• Location: Jerusalem, Israel
• Established: 7th-8th century
• Significance: The third-holiest site; associated with Muhammad’s Night Journey and Islam’s early prayer direction. It features the iconic Dome of the Rock as it's centerpiece shrine
• Mount Arafat (Mountain of Mercy)
• Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
• Significance: Central to the Hajj. Pilgrims gather here for the Wuquf, the defining ritual of the pilgrimage.
• Mina (City of Tents)
• Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
• Significance: Major Hajj site where pilgrims stay and perform the ritual stoning of the Jamarat. It is an ancient site also associated with Abraham and his son Ishmael. 
• Muzdalifah
• Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
• Significance: Hajj site where pilgrims spend the night and traditionally collect pebbles for the stoning ritual. Also associated with Abraham
• Jabal al-Nour / Cave of Hira
• Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
• Significance: Traditionally identified as the place where Muhammad received the first revelation from Gabriel.
• Quba Mosque (Prophet's Mosque)
• 
  Location: Medina, Saudi Arabia
  
• Established: 622
• Significance: Traditionally regarded as the first mosque established by Muhammad. It has been continuously renovated since 1980
• Jannat al-Baqi
• Location: Medina, Saudi Arabia
• Established: 622 
• Significance: Historic cemetery containing many companions and members of Muhammad’s family. Much of the original tomb complex was destroyed during the Saudi conquest of Hejaz in 1925
• Jabal Thawr / Cave of Thawr
• Location: Mecca, Saudi Arabia
• Significance: Associated with Muhammad and Abu Bakr’s hiding place during the Hijra.
• Great Mosque of Kufa
• Location: Kufa, Iraw
• Established: 638-670
• Regarded as one of the earliest Mosques based in Iraq where the first Shia imams lived (Ali ibn Abi Talib). 
• Imam Ali Shrine 
• Location: Najaf, Iraq
• Established: 786
• Significance: Traditionally believed to contain the tomb of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad’s cousin, son-in-law, and the first Imam in Shi’a Islam.
• 
  Imam Husayn Shrine
  
• Location: Karbala, Iraq
• Established: 680
• Significance: Shrine of Husayn ibn Ali, whose martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala is foundational to Shi’a religious identity.
• Al-Abbas Shrine
• Location: Karbala, Iraq
• Established: 684-685
• Significance: Dedicated to Abbas ibn Ali, Husayn’s half-brother and companion at the Battle of Karbala.
• Al-Askari Shrine
• Location: Samarra, Iraq
• Established: 944
• Significance: Associated with the 10th and 11th Shi’a Imams, Ali al-Hadi and Hasan al-Askari. The 12th Imam (Muhammad al-Mahdi) is the unidentified son of Hasan al-Askari that according to tradition is in hiding and will return near judgement day. 
• Imam Reza Shrine 
• Location: Mashhad, Iran
• Established: 818 
• Significance: Shrine of Ali al-Rida (Imam Reza), the eighth Twelver Shi’a Imam; one of the largest pilgrimage centers in the Shi’a world.
• Al-Kadhimiya Mosque
• Location: Baghdad, Iraq
• Established: 762 (Rebuilt in 1502-1524 under Suleiman the Magnificent) 
• Significance: Contains the tombs of the seventh and ninth Twelver Imams, Musa al-Kazim and Muhammad al-Jawad.
• Great Mosque of Kairouan
• Location: Kairouan, Tunisia
• Established: 670
• Significance: One of North Africa’s oldest and most historically important mosques. It marked the beginning of Islam's influence in the North African region referred to as Maghreb.  
• Umayyad Mosque
• 
  Location: Damascus, Syria
  
• Established: 706-715
• Significance: One of the great monuments of early Islamic civilization; traditionally associated with the tomb of John the Baptist, that was once a Christian basilica until it was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate.
• Great Mosque of Córdoba 
• Location: Cordoba, Spain
• Established: 785 (1236- Mosque is conquered by Christians; 1523-1599- The Renaissance Cathedral of Cordoba is built within the Mosque complex)
• Significance: Was once the largest mosques built by Spanish Muslims, until it was captured by the Spanish Christians during the Reconquista. Despite being transformed into a Catholic Church the site still holds importance to Islamic architecture, culture, and history. 
• Ibrahimi Mosque / Cave of the Patriarchs
• Location: Hebron, Palestine
• Established: 100 BC-100 AD (Likely built under Herod the Great)
• Significance: Revered in Islamic tradition as the burial place of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and their families; also sacred to Judaism and Christianity.
• Hagia Sophia
• Location: Istanbul, Turkey
• Established: 537
• Significance: Former Eastern Orthodox cathedral that became the centerpiece Mosque of the Ottoman Empire after their conquest in 1453. It is considered a monumental landmark of Euro-Asia translated as the Church of Holy Wisdom. 
• Chora Church
• Location: Istanbul, Turkey
• Established: 11th century (reconstructed in the 14th century)
• Significance: Another iconic Byzantine church that was later converted into a mosque after the 1453 Ottoman conquest. It is most notable for it's architecture and interior frescoes and mosaics. 
• Selimiye Mosque
• Location: Edirne, Turkey
• Established: 1575
• Significance: Considered a masterpiece of Ottoman architecture with it's massive dome and four iconic minarets. It was commissioned by Sultan Selim II
• Shah Mosque
• Location: Isfahan, Iran
• Established: 1611-1630
• Significance: It became the central Mosque of the Safavid Empire (Iran) commissioned by the Shah Abbas the Great. It is renown as the greatest work of Persian architecture with it's enormous dome, gate towers, and geometrical wall art. This building helped transform the city of Isfahan into the new religious capital of the Safavid Empire. 
• Blue Mosque (Sultan Ahmed Mosque)
• 
  Location: Istanbul, Turkey
  
• Established: 1616
• Significance: Commissioned by Sultan Ahmed it became the greatest mosque of the Ottoman Empire, stealing the spotlight from the Christian built Hagia Sophia. It soars over the city of Istanbul with it's layered domes and 6 tall minarets. Inside the mosque is a massive hall with intricate design patterns and tiles that give off the iconic blue appearance. 
• Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque
• Location: Isfahan, Iran
• Established: 1619
• Significance: It was commissioned during the reign of Shah Abbas the Great as an example of the golden age of Persian Architecture. It's dome is quite impressive within the massive courtyard of Naqsh-e Jahan Square. However the interior is even more incredible with it's intricate wall patterns, calligraphy, and geographical artwork.   
• Great Mosque of Samara
• Location: Samarra, Iraq
• Established: 848-852
• Significance: It is considered an ancient wonder of the Muslim world, built during the Abbasid Empire. It's most iconic feature is the massive minaret tower known as the Malwiya. Standing at 171 feet high it was the tallest Mosque of it's time and also the largest with it's enclosed walls. Most of the structure today is in ruins but is still considered an important site to Muslims. 
• Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque
• Location: Muscat, Oman
• Established: 1994-2001
• Significance: The largest mosque in Oman and considered one of the finest examples of modern Islamic architecture
• Hassan II Mosque
• Location: Casablanca, Morocco
• Established: 1993
• Significance: Another great work of modern Islamic architecture that overlooks the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean. It is one of the largest Mosques in Africa with an iconic 690 foot tower. It is considered a landmark of Morocco. 
• Nasir al-Mulk Mosque
• 
  Location: Shiraz, Iran 
  
• Established: 1888
• Significance: Known as the Pink Mosque it is the central shrine of the historic city of Shiraz and a crowned jewel of Islamic architecture. It is most famous for it's vast collection of stained glass windows that illuminate brilliantly at sunset. 
• Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque
• Location: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
• Established: 2007
• Significance: It is the central iconic mosque of the modern global city of Abu Dhabi. It looks like something right out of sci-fi movie with it's white marble domes and minarets that resemble pure perfection.  
• Camlica Mosque
• Location: Istanbul, Turkey
• Established: 2019
• Significance: It is one of the newest works of modern Islamic architecture. It is the largest mosque in the historic city of Istanbul (as well as Turkey). It is perched high up on a hill overlooking the city with it's domes and 6 white minarets. 
• Tilakari Madrasa
• Location: Samarkand, Uzbekistan
• Established: 1646-1660
• Significance: Translated into the Gilded Madrasa it is the beacon of Islam in Uzbekistan. It serves not only as a grand mosque but also as a university. The interior has a hypnotic design of blue-and-gold patterns. 

Ten Greatest Philosophical Writers

As I reviewed my list of most influential philosophers, I had about 10-15 that were on the borderline between philosopher and writer. I had a similar dilemma with my theologian list and decided to separate the pure thinkers from the pure writers. Many of these great writers championed already existing philosophical ideals. It didn't seem right to include them as systematic philosophers who established original concepts, but I still wanted to give them their philosophical dues (especially as someone who appreciates great writing). These writers were still very influential in advocating various concepts thru their popular works. Some of these writers went on to lead social movements, most notably the transcendentalists Ralph Waldo Emerson and David Thoreau. I personally consider Ralph Waldo Emerson the ultimate guide and mantra to my way of thinking. 

So just like I did with my Top Ten Greatest Catholic Writers, I'm going to focus on my Top Ten Greatest Philosophical Writers. These writers serve as the prime example of making a philosophical concept popular thru literature. It's fair to say that many of the great philosophers were better at their rhetoric than their actual writing (such as Socrates, Diogenes, and Immanuel Kant). However on the flip side there were some pure philosophers who were also very good writers such as Plato, Cicero, Marcus Aurelius, Rene Descartes, John Stuart Mill, and Nietzsche. I will not be including these writers in this particular post since I already covered them in the previous post. (They will be included however on my list of greatest works of philosophical writing. This here list will focus on the philosophical writers who were more famous for their works of literature vs their original concepts. 

Greatest Philosophical Writers

Lucretius

• 
  Dates: 99-55 BC
  
• Nationality: Roman
• School of Thought: Epicureanism
• Type of Writing: Epic Poem
• Influenced by: Epicurus, Democritus, early Greek atomism
• Key Works:
• De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things)
• Key Themes:
• Atomism
• Materialism
• Nature
• Mortality
• Rejection of divine internvention
• Fear of death
• pleasure
• Human happiness
• The origins of the universe
• Influenced: Virgil, Epicureanism, Renaissance humanism

• Summary: He was a Roman poet and philosopher who advocated the concepts of Epicurus and Democritus pertaining to epicureanism. This is essentially a form of hedonism that puts pleasure and happiness above everything else. Lucretius most famous work, On the Nature of Things explains the origins of the universe as pure atomic matter, free from any divine influence. This ultimately means that humans are free to live without moral fear of the afterlife and should make the most of their life on earth. The writing is revered not only for it's philosophical concepts but more so for it's poetic dictation. Quite interestingly the poem was lost for some time, and was not rediscovered until during the Renaissance where it went on to help inspire the social movement of humanism. 

Michel de Montaigne

• Dates: 1533-1592
• Nationality: French
• 
  School of Thought: Renaissance Humanism, Skepticism
  
• Type of Writing: Essays
• Influenced by: Socrates, Stoicism, Epicureanism, Plutarch, Seneca, Cicero
• Key Works:
• The Essays (Essais)
• Key Themes:
• Skepticism
• self-knowledge, individuality
• human nature
• mortality
• Uncertainty
• education
• custom and culture
• religion
• virtue
• Influenced: Shakespeare, Francis Bacon, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nietzsche, existentialism, humanism, 

• Summary: Regarded as the French Machiavelli, Montaigne championed the philosophical discourse of humanism in written form. Many of his most famous concepts are in his work Essais which ultimately ask his famous question, +What do I know?" Montaigne used a skeptical approach to question everything pertaining to religion, culture, and human nature. What makes Montaigne more of a writer then a philosopher, was that he was not making any major groundbreaking claims. In his writings he was mostly examining life thru critical analysis with pure open-ending conclusions. He is considered the father of modern essay who made the topic of philosophy popular once again. 

Johnathan Swift

• Dates: 1667-1745
• 
  Nationality: Irish
  
• School of Thought: Enlightenment, Augustinism, Christian humanism
• Type of Writing: Satire, essays, poetry, prose fiction
• Influenced by: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke
• Key Works:
• Gulliver's Travels
• A Modest Proposal
• A Tale of a Tub
• The Drapier's Letters
• The Battle of the Books
• Key Themes:
• Human nature and pride
• Political corruption and abuse of power 
• Inequality and poverty
• Religious conflict
• Limits of human knowledge
• Influenced: Political satire, Voltaire, George Orwell, George Bernard Shaw

• Summary: He is considered one of the most famous satirist writers best known for his fantasy novel of Gulliver's Travels. This book explores the philosophical and political institutions of human society. Gulliver represents the neutral external perspective as he visits various unique civilizations. Each civilization is caught up in the most ridiculous of circumstances, thus demonstrating Swift's use of satire. Each civilization represents some backward political or philosophical ideal that is quite symbolic of our real society. Swift ultimately asks the question in this famous novel, how rational do we really think we are? Many of his writing directly challenged political and philosophical ideals thru a skeptical lens. He also inspired the great French satirist, Voltaire, who dove further into philosophical concepts. 

Voltaire

• Dates: 1694-1778
• Nationality: French
• 
  School of Thought: Enlightenment, Deism, Liberalism, Philosophical Skepticism
  
• Type of Writing: Essays, satire, letters, plays, poetry
• Influenced by: John Locke, Isaac Newton, Renaissance humanism
• Key Works:
• Candide
• Letters Concerning the English Nation
• Philosophical Dictionary
• Treatise on Tolerance
• Zadig
• Key Themes:
• Religious tolerance
• Civil liberties; freedom of thought, speech, expression
• Reason as the ultimate truth
• Empiricism
• Criticism of religious fanaticism
• Separation of church and state
• Influenced: French Enlightenment, secularism, French revolution

• Summary: He is considered one of the most influential writers of the Age of Enlightenment, with many famous philosophical works. Perhaps his most central theme in most of his writings was a critique on the church and any form of authoritarian control over society. As an advocate of John Locke's school of liberalism, Voltaire emphasized the practice of individual freedom over everything. He used clever satire and wit in his writings to target both the church and the government, most famously his novella, Candide. In this writing he especially attacks the metaphysical concepts of Gottfried Leibniz that our earth is the best possible scenario. Instead Voltaire believes we should set aside these metaphysical beliefs and focus on what is before us, or as he famously says "we must cultivate our own garden". Voltaire was very popular throughout his lifetime and had a correspondence with many famous figures such as Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, Emilie du Chatelet (mathematician), Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Alexander Pope, Johnathan Swift, and Benjamin Franklin. His popular writings became the backbone of the Enlightenment that favored reason and science over the religion, which also became the influential ideology of the French Revolution. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson

• Dates: 1803-1882
  
• Nationality: American
• 
  School of Thought: Transcendentalism
• Type of Writing: Essays, poetry
• Influenced by: Immanuel Kant, Unitarianism, Romanticism, German Idealism, Eastern Philosophy
• Key Works:
• Nature
• Self-Reliance
• The Over-Soul
• Experience
• Essays
• Key Themes:
• Individualism, self-reliance
• Intuition
• Nature
• Over-Soul
• Nonconformity, individual conscious
• Influenced: Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman, American Transcendentalism, Friedreich Nietzsche

• Summary: He is considered the leader of the American Transcendentalist movement throughout the mid-1800s. Influenced by the concepts of German idealism as well as Eastern philosophy, Emerson sought to break away from society norms and promote the individual. In his most famous work, Self-Reliance he described how the individual should trust and follow their own intuition rather then just follow the crowd. This is best achieved thru a connection with nature and one's own spirituality. Emerson's philosophy was heavily based with a Christian foundation where the individual should seek to achieve spiritual unity of their soul with God. This was a much different approach then Buddhism or German nihilism, which sought to separate the individual from religious restrictions. Emerson's concept of the Over-Soul is very similar to Nietzsche's Overman concept, both seeking to achieve inner transcendence (however Emerson's approach embraces divinity while Nietzsche completely rejects it). This mentality was very influential among many great American writers such as Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman, and Emily Dickinson.   

Henry David Thoreau

• Dates: 1817-1862
  
• 
  Nationality: American
  
• School of Thought: Transcendentalism
• Type of Writing: Essays, poetry, journals
• Influenced by: Ralph Waldo Emerson, Transcendentalism, Romanticism, Eastern Philosophy
• Key Works:
• Walden
• Civil Disobedience
• A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers
• Key Themes:
• Nature
• Simple living
• Individualism
• Self-reliance
• Spirituality
• Civil disobedience, resistant to unjust government
• Influenced: John Muir, environmentalism, conservationism

• Summary: Influenced heavily by his friend Ralph Waldo Emerson, Thoreau strengthened the Transcendentalism Movement through his writings. In his most famous work Walden, he shared a journal experience of retreating to a cabin in the woods living only with the bare necessities. This experience embodied all the components of American transcendentalism such as self-reliance, individualism, simple-living, connection with nature, and spiritual unity with God. Thoreau argued that when we can remove the unnecessary material and social status we can get closer to our true individual freedom. He also promoted the practice of civil disobedience as a form of nonviolent resistance against unjust governments. This approach became very popular among future political activists most notably Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.

Marcel Proust

• Dates: 1871-1922
• 
  Nationality: French
  
• School of Thought: Modernism
• Type of Writing: Novels, essays
• Influenced by: Henri Bergson, John Ruskin, French Realism, Symbolism, Impressionism
• Key Works: 
• In Search of Lost Time
• Swann's Way
• Time Regained
• Pastiches et Melanges
• Key Themes:
• Memory
• Time
• Consciousness and perception
• Love, jealousy, sexuality
• Art
• Social identity
• Influenced: Samuel Beckett, Virginia Wolff, James Joyce, Walter Benjamin, Gilles Deleuze, Modernist literature, phenomenology, existentialism

• Summary: Best known for his famous novel, In Search of Lost Time, Marcel Proust wrote a uniquely profound story that pertains entirely to human consciousness. The entire story takes us inside the mind of the narrator who is experiencing flashbacks, a term Proust coins as involuntary memory. I like his concept of present day things that can trigger an involuntary memory, such as a song, a smell, or a taste. These sensory experiences in present time, gives us a slightly distorted version of the past memory but never the full event in total clarity. Despite this lack of clarity, Proust asks if the past is forever engrained within our consciousness as a part of us. This opens up a bigger philosophical question on time and perception. How is it even conceivable that we can revisit the past, and how does this align with time as we know it? This ties into one of Augustine's concepts where the past is pure memory that is explored in the present moment (thus making the past nonexistent). In Search of Lost Time is a philosophical rich story that uses a character and events to explore the internal nature of a human being. 

Hermann Hesse

• Dates: 1877-1962
  
• Nationality: German-Swizz
• 
  School of Thought: Existentialism, Romanticism, Eastern philosophy, Jungian psychology
• Type of Writing: Novels, novellas, poetry, essays
• Influenced by: Friedrich Nietzsche, Arthur Schopenhauer, Carl Jung, Buddhism, Hinduism
• Key Works:
• Demian
• Siddhartha
• Steppenwolf
• The Glass Bead Game
• Narcissus and Goldmund
• Key Themes:
• Self-discovery, inner-conflict, personal transformation
• Individuality
• Spiritiuality
• Duality
• Reason vs instinct
• East vs West
• alienation
• Society vs Individual
• Influenced: Existentialist literature, counterculture

• Summary: With his background in psycho-anaylsis and philosophical studies, Hesse brought a unique perspective into his writing. He worked closely with the famous psychiatrist Carl Jung who founded the school of analytical psychology. Hesse was also heavily influenced by Eastern religions and traditions. His central theme often pertained to self-discovery and embracing one's individuality amidst the expectations of society. He explored how the individual could search for their true identity and even find meaning thru spirituality. Similar to Proust, this form of writing takes the reader into the narrator's mind as their consciousness is on full display. It was a creative way to explore questions of existentialism and inner-transformation that later became very popular during the counterculture hippie days.  

Franz Kafka

• Dates: 1883-1924
• 
  Nationality: Austro-Hungarian, Czech
  
• School of Thought: Modernist, Existentialism
• Type of Writing: Novels, novellas, short stories 
• Influenced by: Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Franz Grillparzer
• Key Works:
• The Trial
• The Metamorphosis
• The Castle
• Amerika
• The Judgement
• In the Penal Colony
• Key Themes:
• Alienation, isolation
• Absurdity
• Bureaucracy, authority
• Guilt, anxiety, helplessness 
• Identity, freedom
• Meaning
• Communication
• Justice
• Influenced: Existentialism, Absurdism, Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Jorge Luis Borges, Hannah Arendt

• Summary: Although Kafka himself did not identify with the movements of existentialism or absurdism, his writings are highly based on these philosophical concepts. His central question in many of his works, is how can the identity find meaning in a world that can hardly comprehend. For example in his famous work of The Trial, a man is arrested but is not told what the crime is. Thus we enter the man's inner consciousness as he questions his moral compass vs the legal authoritative system. Even more absurd is his masterpiece, The Metamorphosis where a man wakes up one day and is transformed into an insect. The character then begins to explore the philosophical questions of personal identity ( in this case having the same mind but in a whole different body, albeit a monstrous one). The situation itself is a prime example of an absurd reality where we must continue to go on despite not understanding the reason or purpose being it all. These writings went on to influence some of the great modern philosophers such as Jean Paul-Sartre and Albert Camus.  

Jorge Luis Borges

• Dates: 1899-1986
• 
  Nationality: Argentina
  
• School of Thought: Modernism, philosophical fiction, magical realism
• Type of Writing: Short stories, essays, poetry
• Influenced by: George Berkley, David Hume, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Soren Kierkegaard, Kabbalah, Buddhism, Christianity
• Key Works:
• Ficciones
• Labyrinths
• The Aleph
• The Library of Babel
• The Garden of Forking Paths
• Pierre Menard
• Author of the Quixote
• Tlon, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius
• Key Themes:
• Reality and illusion
• Time and infinity
• Identity
• Memory
• Language
• Free will and fate
• The nature of God
• The universe as a labrynth
• Influenced: Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Italo Calvino, Umberto Eco, magical realism

• Summary: Heavily influenced by the movements of empiricism, German idealism, and existentialism Jorge Luis Borges explored these concepts in many of his famous short stories. His most famous writings of Ficciones and El Aleph demonstrate fantasy settings that challenge our perspective on reality. This especially pertains to the mysterious nature of dreams or the concept of infinity. Borges also famously illustrates the world as one giant labyrinth where we are constantly trying to navigate thru various choices, paths, alternative realities, and an infinitude of archives. He also demonstrates the limits of language and how it can lead to uncertainty, confusion, and even madness. I especially enjoy this concept of an infinite amount of possibilities that can lead to an overwhelming anxiety. Borges is not so much answering these questions rather putting the reader in the midst of an imaginative setting that explores these questions. This type of writing became highly influential to the father of magical realism, Gabriel Garcia Marquez.  

Greatest Philosophical Writings

• The Upanishads (Various Hindu writers) 800-300 BC
• The Analects (Confucius) 475 BC
• Symposium (Plato) 385 BC
• The Republic (Plato) 375 BC
• Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle) 340 BC
• On the Nature of Things (Lucretius) 50 BC
• Meditations (Marcus Aurelius) 180 
• The Enneads (Plotinus) 270
• Confessions (Augustine of Hippo) 397 
• City of God (Augustine of Hippo) 413 
• The Consolation of Philosophy (Boethius) 523 
• The Book of Healing (Avicenna) 1027
• The Guide for the Perplexed (Maimonides) 1190
• Summa Theologeia (Thomas Aquinas) 1265-1274
• Divine Comedy (Dante) 1308-1321
• The Prince (Niccolo Machiavelli) 1513
• Essays (Michael de Montaigne) 1580
• Novum Organum (Francis Bacon) 1620
• Meditations on First Philosophy (Rene Descartes) 1641
• Leviathan (Thomas Hobbes) 1651
• Ethics (Baruch Spinoza) 1677
• An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (John Locke) 1689
• Gulliver's Travels (Johnathan Swift) 1726
• A Treatise of Human Nature (David Hume) 1739
• The Social Contract (Jean-Jacques Rousseau) 1762
• Candide (Voltaire) 1759
• Critique on Pure Reason (Immanuel Kant) 1781
• The World as Will and Representation (Arthur Schopenhauer) 1818
• Nature (Ralph Waldo Emerson) 1836 
• Fear and Trembling (Soren Kierkegaard) 1843
• Walden (Henry David Thoreau) 1854
• On Liberty (John Stuart Mill) 1859
• Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Friedrich Nietzsche) 1883
• Beyond Good and Evil (Friedrich Nietzsche) 1886
• The Trial (Franz Kafka) 1914
• Siddhartha (Herman Hesse) 1922
• In Search of Lost Time (Marcel Proust) 1927
• Being and Nothingness (Jean-Paul Sartre) 1943
• The Myth of Sisyphus (Albert Camus) 1955