So after nearly two months of Central European studies (which included deep dives into the history of Kingdom of Bohemia, the Holy Roman Empire, the Teutonic Knights, and the video game Kingdom Come Deliverance) I now prepare to turn to the Hundred Years War. So I'm still staying in the middle ages but I'm rewinding back about hundred years to the mid 1300s. This pivot has already begun as it has overlapped with my studies on Central European history and even some studies on the Crusades. I've taken on a new book series (The Grail Quest by Bernard Cromwell) which is set during the 1st phase of the Hundred Years War. However it occurred to me that the famous plague known as the Black Death occurred around the same time. So I've decided to first focus on this terrible pandemic, that was considered one of the worse plagues in human history.
I usually don't get too much into scientifical medical studies but truth is they are also an essential aspect of human history. When it comes to my historical studies I tend to focus more on the military, political, or religious aspects verses the societal ones. For example with the Roman Empire, I have hit at the rise and fall of the Empire, their military campaigns, and even the early spread of Christianity. But have hardly scratched at the Roman infrastructure, it's governing system, it's economy, currency, legal system, education, medical practice, entertainment, the social classes, and the daily life in general. I do fervently believe that history is usually decided by military prowess. Nonetheless a nation cannot have a strong army if they do not have a strong society and that is also very worth taking a look into.
As I emerge into these medieval settings it's especially hard to ignore the significance the Black Death had on society. It wiped out nearly half of Europe's population from 1346 to 1353. In this post I'd like to get a better understanding of the plague's migration, the medical components, and just the social reaction in general. It's important to set the stage historically here that this was actually considered a part of the Second Plague Pandemic which lasted from the 1300s-1700s. The Black Death made up the beginning and majority of the fatalities, but the plague continued for many years afterwards. The First Plague Pandemic occurred from 541-750 AD, while the Third Plague Pandemic occurred from 1855-1950. I'll write more about the other plagues at the end, but for now I want to focus on the Black Death since it is aligns with my medieval studies.
Outbreak and Migration
The exact root cause of the Black Death is debatable among
scientific theorists, but the general consensus is that it emerged as a
bacteria that was transmitted by rat fleas. This bacteria known as the yersinia
pestis existed within wild rodents for thousands of years in Central Asia. This
bacteria made it's first deadly human debut during the Justinian Plague of 541
to 549 AD. It then went silent for close to 600 years before returning
for a second time. A new deadly strain emerged once again in the 1300s as fleas
became more immune to the bacteria. It existed within wild rodents such as
marmots, squirrels, and gerbils in the Tian Shan region of Kyrgyzstan. The
fleas then transmitted this bacteria from wild rodents to black rats that
freeloaded on the human markets along the Silk Road. The rats were similar
vermin to the wild rodents and became easy new hosts for the bacteria infected
fleas.
Within 2 to 5 days after a flea bite, most of the rats would
die since they didn't have the immune system to fight it. Soon there were
colonies of dead rats, near human trading hubs. And naturally the fleas needed
a new warm host to feed off of, and thus migrated to the nearby humans. And it
was here among the merchants of the silk road where the humans first came into
contact with the Bubonic Plague that would later be known as the Black Death.
It is believed the first humans deaths from this plague occurred in the city of
Kara-Dijgach (modern day Bishkek, capital of Kyrgyzstan) in 1338. It was here
in this city where the bacteria underwent a big-bang and the deadly epidemic
began. Before anyone could understand or contain the new virus it had quickly
spread from Central Asia, all along the silk road into Mongolian territory
known as the Golden Horde (modern day Russia and Ukraine). By 1346 the plague
was in full force in Central Asia and Eastern Europe. The Mongolian armies were
all infected with the plague and began to use the virus as a form of biological
warfare. The most notable of these events was at the Siege of Caffa in 1347
where the Golden Horde army led by Jani Beg fired infected corpses via catapult
into the coastal Italian towns of Genoa and Venice. The Italian Republics were
able to fend off the Mongolian invasion, however the damage was done. The Black
Death had officially arrived in Europe via war but also via trade ships pouring
in from the Mediterranean.
Although this pandemic probably officially began in 1338 in
Central Asia, the Black Death as we know it began it's spread thru Europe in
1346. It first arrived in Europe via the Mediterranean coastal trade hubs of
Genoa, Venice, Constantinople, Dubrovnik, Messina, and Marseille. From there
the pandemic moved inland in every direction. By 1348 it spread into the
Northern Africa, the Middle East, the Bakins, Italy, France, and Spain. By 1349
it pressed further north reaching England. By 1350-1353 it reached Central
Europe into Germany, Poland, the Scandinavian territory, and the Baltic region.
By around 1353 the disease was finally contained by natural selection but also
via quarantine practice. Within it's eight-year timespan it killed an estimated
50 million people, wiping out nearly 60% of the European population. The plague
continued thru other waves and regions for many years after however this
was the brunt of the Second Plague Pandemic.
Medical Symptoms and Treatment
I've recently come to understand the difference between a bacteria and a virus, which is the main element of an illness. They key difference is that a bacteria is a living organism while a virus is not-living. They are both foreign substances that infect our cells, from a common cold to an infectious plague. The most recent pandemic, Covid-19 was actually a virus that hijacked into peoples cells, and caused 7 million deaths. The Black Death however was a bacteria brought on by the rat-fleas that lived among the other cells. Eventually this bacteria would emit toxins to kill the other cells, while multiplying throughout the bloodstream. The expansion of these toxic new cells emerged in lumps on the exterior of one's body referred to as bubos, hence the term bubonic plague.
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The Yersinia pestis bacteria was renown for it's tremendous speed at multiplying within the human system. On average it took no more than a week for this invading bacteria to overrun the other cells and completely end someone's life. Early symptoms began as a terrible flu but then grew worse into death marks such as the buboes lumps, and blackened fingers or toes. There were three forms of this plague ranging from the most widespread the bubonic plague, to the more deadly pneumonic and septicemic plague. The bacteria was transmitted via fleas but also thru human touch or breath, coughs, sneezes, and close proximity. It took sometime for doctors to understand the deadly spread of this disease and the necessity to quarantine the infected.
One can only imagine the shock and confusion among the medical field in those days. They didn't quite have the technology or microscopic tools to properly understand a human cell. Their first theory was that it was simple blood inflammation and their first treatment was to cut the nodes. They then came to understand that there was a poison in the body and it must be removed by any means necessary. As doctors began to die themselves from catching the plague, the iconic mask was invented for treatment. This long beak like a penguin face, protected their nose from ingesting the deadly bacteria. (I remember I first learned of these doctors in Assassin's Creed 2). Eventually since there was no proper medicine to treat it, they decided it best to simply quarantine the infected. This was done by stopping incoming ships, and essentially isolating the general public from one another. The infected houses were marked with a red cross. One can only imagine the eerie emptiness of the town streets.
God's Punishment
Since this was such a cataclysmic phenomena the church quickly saw it as a sign of God's fury. It was his way to punish and purge the wicked just as he did with the flood of Noah's Ark and the burning of Sodom and Gomorrah. This was still a much more fanatical era where the church reigned supreme on social affairs. Priests emphasized the importance of prayer and repentance to protect themselves from the plague. Some radical Christians took this even further by whipping themselves in public, an act known as flagellantism. They considered this act of self-inflected pain to be a form of public penance, asking forgiveness for the sins of humanity.
From this notion of divine punishment, came natural scapegoating which as history has shown always pointed towards the Jewish people. Just as conspiracy theories emerged during the rise of Nazism, many prominent Christian leaders blamed Jews for the pandemic. Without any evidence they accused the Jews of coordinating this plague by poisoning the water and food supply. The antisemitic fervor quickly gained traction and turned violent. Local mobs began to assault and commit mass murders of Jews in cities such as Strasbourg, Mainz, Cologne, and Frankfurt. Although it was widespread racism across Europe, the majority of these massacres were committed in France and Germany and resulted in nearly ten thousand
Social Influence and Consequences
In the wake of this terrible plague where dead corpses were piling in the streets, society itself had to evolve. It was very dark times where the general public spent the majority of their time locked up in quarantine afraid to catch the disease. There was of course major labor shortages which led to a higher demand for labor and social mobility. It also affected major military campaigns, most notably the Hundred Years War between the English and French. Priests and doctors especially took on the brunt of the disease as they administered to the sick. Universities were established as a result of this mysterious outbreak to improve scientific research and practice. It also saw the birth of new machinery and innovations to replace all the lost laborers.
From this pandemic came a strange renaissance of macabre culture, art, and literature that morbidly celebrated death. The Dance of Death (Danse Macabre) became a frequent allegory among artists that would often display skeletons dancing with the living. This basically gave death an embodiment such as the grim reaper. It was a cynical yet humorous outlook that reminded people that death was a part of life and they shouldn't fear it. Even the church supported this narrative as a form of spiritual equality where death came for everyone, no matter your wealth. This became the dawn of macabre art that was seen in paintings, frescoes, murals, and literature. It was a new cultural concept to laugh at death rather then be terrorized by it. One could make the case that it was thru this new macabre genre that later inspired dark comedy, Gothic novels, and even many elements of Halloween and Dia de los Muertos.
Famous Works of Art
- Decameron (1353)- Written by the Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio, it is considered a masterpiece of literature. It is a collection of 100 short stories told by a group of young nobles at a villa seeking to hide from the plague. Although it is considered a comedy, the book provides the most authentic description of what the plague was really like.
- The Canterbury Tales (1400)- Written by English author, Geoffrey Chaucer. Inspired by the work of Bocaccio, Chaucer offered a similar English interpretation to the Black Death with a series of comedic yet dark short-stories.
- The Dance of Death (1424)- While there were many forms of this dark theme, the most famous was the mural at the Cemetery of the Holy Innocents in Paris
- St. Sebastian the Plague Protector (1499)- Another response that was born from the Black Death was the notion of St. Sebastian as the protector of the plague. Many works of art such as Josse Lieferinxe's painting glorified St. Sebastian for his ability to withstand martyrdom.
- The
Triumph of Death (1562)- The Flemish painter Pieter Bruehel the Elder specialized in his macabre works and this was one of his most famous paintings. It basically acknowledged and glorified the embodiment of death in an apocalyptic scene.
The Three Major Pandemic Plagues
As I mentioned in the intro the rat-flea bacterium of Yersinia pestis has devasted humanity in 3 major outbreaks throughout history. These three bacteria plagues are often considered the worse pandemics in history. However there have also been significant deadly virus pandemics in modern history such as the Spanish Flu (191801920), HIV/Aids (1980-present), and Covid 19 (2019-present). Perhaps some other day I can dive further into these viruses or just a study on pandemics as whole. But for now I'm going to stick with this particular rat-flea bacteria that has caused 3 major waves of death in history.
It's also worth mentioning that today's medical advancements can easily identify and kill this terrible plague bacteria with the use of antibiotics (this is however not the case with viruses). The game-changing discovery was made by the microbiologist Alexander Fleming in 1928. He created the first form of penicillin which was essentially a self-defense chemical against foreign elements such as the deadly plague bacteria. This is without question one of the greatest discoveries in the history of mankind. To think if only they had antibiotics in the middle ages, how many millions of lives could have been saved.
First Plague Pandemic (541-750)
- Plague of Justinian (541-549)- Outbreak in Constantinople, Byzantine Empire. 25 to 50 million death toll
- Plagues in Francia (541-590)- Outbreaks in Auvergne, Dijon, Bourges, Lyon Chalon-sur-Saone, Marsielle, and Avignon.
- Plague of Alexandria, Egypt (543)- Plague spread around the trade routes of Northern Africa. Tens of thoudands.
- Plague of Rome (558-590) Plague spread into Italy, France Spain, and Greece killing millions.
- Plague of Sheroe (627-628) Plague spread into the Sassanid Empire (Iran) decimating the Persian Army
Second Plague Pandemic (1346-1800)
- Black Death (1346-1353)- The initial and most deadly outbreak of the 2nd wave of the plague bacterium across medieval Europe. 25 to 50 million death toll.
- Resurgence in Constantinople (1400-1700s)- Since it was one of the busiest most populated cities in the world, the plague pandemic continued to recur constantly within the booming trade city.
- Paris Plague (1466) A major recurrence that claimed 40,000 people.
- London Plague (1563)- A recurrence of the bubonic plague that claimed 20,000 people under the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
- Plague of Venice (1576-1577)- Another Italian recurrence that hit the booming seaport trade city. It resulted in 50,000 deaths.
- Thirty Years War Outbreak (1618-1648)- While it was one of the deadliest wars in Central Europe, most of the death toll was a result of the bubonic plague instead of war.
- Great Plague of Milan (1629-1631)- Another major outbreak in northern Italy that resulted in 280,000 deaths.
- Great Plague of Seville (1647-1652) A major outbreak that claimed nearly 600,000 lives.
- Great Plague of Vienna (1679)- A regional bubonic epidemic that claimed 76,000 local Austrians, capital of the Habsburg monarchy.
- Great Northern War Plague (1709-1713) As Russia waged war on the Scandinavian nations, the plague once again recurred just the way it did during the Thirty Years War.
- Great Plague of Marseille (1720)- Another major outbreak on the southern coast of France that resulted in nearly 100,000 deaths.
- Great Plague of 1738- The bubonic plague had another major outbreak in eastern Europe spanning across the Balkan region and into central Europe. Estimated 50,000 death toll.
Third Plague Pandemics (1855-1966)
- Yunnan China Outbreak (1855-1870) Considered a separate strand and outbreak of the Yersinia pestis bacteria after a 50 year hiatus. The plague quickly spread from China and into India once again killing millions. It eventually caused nearly 15 millions deaths worldwide before it was contained
- 1894 Hong Kong Plague- Major outbreak of the bubonic plague that killed 20,000.
- India Outbreak (1896-1918)- The pandemic hit major urban areas such as Mumbai and Calcutta killing nearly 10 to 12 million people. It was the most heavily affected area.
- Southeast Asia (1890-1900)- Outbreaks in Hong Kong, Thailand, Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines causing thousands of deaths.
- San Francisco Outbreak (1900)- Outbreak in San Francisco, USA primarily in the Chinatown trade district. Caused 119 confirmed deaths before it was contained and quarantined.
- African Outbreaks (Early 1900s)- Outbreaks in Madagascar and South Africa causing thousands of deaths.
- South American Outbreaks (1908-1912)- Outbreaks in Trinidad, Venezuela, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia,a and Brazil.
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