Cultural Study of India

The past month now I have made one of my first deep dives into Indian culture and history. It's a culture that has always fascinated me, being one of the most populated nations in the world at 1.4 billion people. I think the inspiration hit me a couple months ago after watching the epic Bollywood film, RRR. I've had countless phases and studies regarding Western European/American history, but know so little about the eastern hemisphere of Asia. I try to be a student of all world culture, not just the Christianized west and therefore find this new appreciation into India culture to be very eye-opening. 

When I think of India some of the first thoughts that come to mind are the great food. As a teenager I  always loved going to the Indian Buffet with my mom. It was such an exotic experience with the paintings on the wall, the music, and the foreign tasting food and spices. I came to enjoy it all the more in my adulthood and have recently decided the Tikki Masala is my favorite Indian dish and even tried to make it a few times. I hope to further incorporate more Indian food into my routine, and would say it's right up there with some of my favorite food now.  

As I mentioned in my post regarding the history of India, my earliest associations with the Indian people came as a kid at our school parish. For most my time at St. Johns New Haven the pastor was the most friendly Indian person, Father Derrick. He was such a genuine person and by far one of the happiest and funniest priests I have ever known. I think we had a special relation since he was my dad's boss, and would often come over for dinner. I also was a frequent altar boy during my junior high years and spent a lot of time working with him. I remember he would treat the altar boys to breakfast and he introduced me to wonders of hot sauce. I was very sad when he left during our 8th grade year, but it was thanks to him that I truly embraced the Catholic faith. 

I made numerous Indian friends throughout college and my adult life such as Vidisha. I found them to usually be quite smart but also fun at parties. I later came to know them at work over the years, notably my current IT co-worker Gurnam. I ultimately find them to be a very friendly and humble people and yet another reason I enjoy their culture. Their history is not one of military conquest yet certainly one of spiritual enlightenment. There is no society that has contributed more world religions that that of India. They also have incredible architecture, with the Taj Mahal being a true marvel. It is one of my top ten favorite world wonders. To be honest India was not on my bucket list to travel, that is until recently. 

Religion of India

I think the best place to begin with a study of India's culture is with their many religions. There are actual quite a significant amount of Indian Christians, such as Fr. Derrick, and even Indian Muslims, but that's not there true trademark. India created four major religions; Hinduism, Buddhism, Janism, and Sikkism that today are some of the most popular religions after Christianity and Islam. Each of these religions incorporate the ideal of "dharma" which is a spiritual journey of the inner-self. Similar to prayer, this practice is performed thru meditation where finding inner peace thru spiritual awakening is the common goal. 

Perhaps the earliest of these religions was Hinduism, first documented in the Vedas Texts in 3000 BC. However many believe the practice was in place thousands of years before and was only officially documented at that point. Similar to Greek or Norse mythology there are many Hindu Gods such Brahma the creator, Vishnu the Perserver, and Shiva the Destroyer. But unlike those mythologies this is more so about recognizing the inner self's journey rather than praising a deity. Hindu's practice various forms of spiritual enrichment thru meditation, yoga, worship, rituals, festivals, and pilgrimages. The goal of all Hindus is to acheive this spiritual enlightenment known as moksha, also known as nirvana. 

Buddhism is a much more recent branch of Hinduism that emerged in the fifth century BC. Just as the prophet Jesus Christ introduced new teachings that broke away from the ancient Jewish customs, so did Siddhartha Guatama. Later known as "the Budda" he enhanced this Hindu notion of dharma thru a structured path known as the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The essence being that in order to overcome suffering one must overcome desire. This is not achieved by praying to a deity yet rather by meditating and living in the present moment. Some could make the case that this is more so a philosophy since there is no major deity, but the Buddha himself has become the centralized force of the practice. 

Around the same time Budda introduced new spiritual practices to the Indian people so did the 24 Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers) that established the Janism philosophy. They incorporated similar teachings of non-violence, non-absolutism (that not everything can be understood), and ascetism (letting go of possessions and indulging pleasures). Perhaps one of the most recent world religions is Sikhism founded in the late 1400s by the Guru Nanak. Unlike Hinduism or Buddhism, this practice brings attention to a singular God who dwells within all creation. In order to find union with this God, one must seek and carry out his will.       

Architecture of India

The Taj Mahal is without question the iconic landmark of the country of India and also one of my favorite modern monuments behind the Eiffel Tower. Built in the 1600s during the Mughal Empire, this monument was originally built as a mausoleum by the emperor for his family. It has sense become a world heritage site, bringing visitors from all over the world to marvel at it's architectural wonder. With it's massive white marble domes and tall standing towers, it's symmetry is true perfection and aestheticism. Standing tall in front of a garden and fountain pool, it truly looks like something out of a romantic fantasy story. 

But long before the Taj Mahal was constructed, India had already made it's mark with hundreds of other architectual marvels. As far back as the Great Stuppa of Sanchi commissioned in the 3rd century BC by Ashoka the Great. Or the massive Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya (built in the 232 BC) where the great Buddha achieved his enlightenment. The religious site also contains the iconic massive statue of the Buddha himself erected in 1982. India has many ancient Hindu temples often built as a pyramid with a spire with intricate sculpting. There are also many impressive underground temples such as the Ellora Caves. The Hindu Meenakshi Temple is arguably one of the most intricate designs, built in 1190 AD. The complex has 14 colorful towers known as Gopurams with incredible sculpting detail. The Ranganathaswamy Temple is the largest gopuram in the world standing at 240 feet of incredible detail.

Another monumental site in India is the Qutb Minar, built in 1220 AD during the Dehli Sultante of Islam influence. Inspired by the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan, the architecture presents a more middle eastern style. Upon it's completion it stood as the tallest minaret in the world (and still remains the tallest made of bricks). Other iconic marvels include the Golden Temple, built in 1604 as the sacred center of Sikhism. The Hawa Mahal built in 1799 with it's iconic red sandstone built by the Rajasthan people. Some modern marvels include the Lotus Temple, built in 1986 in Delhi as the center of Baha'i. And the Statue of Unity, built in 2018 in depicts one of the Indian Independence leaders Vallabhbhai Patel. It currently stands as the tallest statue in the world at an impressive 597 feet.     

Music and Dance in India

India has a very definitive musical style that embodies their spiritual, colorful, and even exotic culture. Some of the defining instruments are it's hypnotic sitar and the bansuri flute. Some of these sounds are downright ambient and therapeutic, no doubt incorporating India's desire for inner peace. There is also a very rhythmic component to India music that demonstrates their more free-spirited nature. I've also noted in their more modern music a rather high pitched and enhanced vocal quality. Perhaps one of the most famous all time musicians from India was Ravi Shankar, the master sitarist who influenced the Beatles during the 1960s. 

The people of India are a very expressive one, and this is demonstrated thru their colorful wardrobe yet even more so their music and dance. According to ancient Hindu religion there really is no better way to express oneself then thru dance. Whether that be an artistic meditative interpretation, a celebration of folk tradition, or even a festive display of jubilation. I've watched many Indian Bollywood films now and I am simply in awe of how much music there is in all their films. Whether it is a comedy, romance, or intense historical drama there is so much music in these films, and it's usually quite catchy melodies. 

Cuisine of India

Another defining part of India's culture is their flavorful cuisine that seems to be growing more and more popular these days. I would argue that Indian restaurants are probably the fourth most popular foreign food in America, behind Chinese, Mexican, and Italian (maybe close with Thai food). It's too bad you're seeing less and less buffets these days, but that doesn't seem to be affecting their business whatsoever. The food has a very original and distinctive flavor of spices, tomatoes, cream, rice, and meats. 

They have their distinctive Basmati Rice, Naan Bread, and many various forms of curry dishes. Popular appetizers include the samosas, while some of the most popular dishes are the tikki masala, the tandoori chicken, and the biryani. Some of their distinctive deserts are their rice pudding known as kheer and my mom's favorite the gulab jamun. India is one of the biggest producers of tea in the world and is by far the most common drink. Coffee is also popular while alcoholic drinks are not. 

Movies about India

India has a very booming movie market known as Bollywood that has become a staple of their culture. In 2019 it ranked third in box office revenue and has the most annual movie productions than any other country. They released in impressive 2446 feature films in 2019 compared to the United States' 792. Most Indian films today, no matter the genre, have multiple musical sequences of song and dance throughout the movie. Here is a list of iconic movies about India, produced by America and India.

• 
  Gandhi (1982): Directed by Richard Attenbourough, this epic biopic depicts the life of Indian Independence leader Mahatma Gandhi. Starring Ben Kingsley as Gandhi it portrays his time studying in Britain and later returning to his home land of India to lead his people against the political injustice brought on by the British Raj. I remember first watching this film in high school. It went on to receive 11 Academy Award nominations and won 8 including best picture, best director, and best lead actor.
• Slumdog Millionaire (2008): This British film directed by Danny Boyle cleaned up on Academy awards including best picture and best director. It was a very popular underdog story about a poor kid from the slums of India who by some miracle won a million dollars from a trivia game show. Meanwhile he also fought against the street gangs of India to win the hand of the girl he loved. It was a true romantic feel good movie.
• Life of Pi (2012): Based off the popular book by Yann Martel, this film adaptation directed by Ang Lee was also a major success at the academy awards. It demonstrated a philosophical and spiritual journey of a young boy as he survived a boat crash with a Bengal tiger. The film had incredible special effects, notable the interaction with the Bengal tiger, yet also a nice ambient soundtrack.  
• RRR (2022): This epic action drama became the most expensive film ever produced by India. It also won two Academy awards for best foreign film and best song. The movie is a fictional account of two Independent revolutionaries against the British Raj. It depicts far fetched fight and dance sequences that are incredibly visually stimulating. The special effects and choreography are truly worth the experience. Although it was a drawn out 3 hour 20 minutes this film inspired my recent Indian appreciation phase. 
  
  
• A Passage to India (1984) This historical epic directed by David Lean is the adaptation of E.M Forester's classic novel. It went on to receive an impressive 11 Academy Award nominations and won 2 for best supporting actress Peggy Ashcroft and best musical score for Maurice Jarre. While I have recently finished the book, I have yet to watch this movie, but will soon.
• Kesari (2019) This historical epic portrays the Battle of Saragarhi which took place in 1897 where an Afghan tribal army of 10,000 attacked a British fortress defended by 21 Sikh soldiers. The Sikh soldiers made a heroic last stand to defend the fortress but eventually were all killed in the attack. The movie glorifies their courage, in very dramatic, bloody, and drawn-out fashion. The film has some great musical and combat sequences. 
• Lion (2016) Tells the true story of how a young boy in India was seperated from his parents and later adopted by an Australian family. As a young man the boy returns to India to find his parents. The film stars Dev Patel as the lead character and Nicole Kidman as his adopted mom. It received six oscar nominations and I remember it to be a heart warming story. 

Book Review: A Passage to India

I believe I first heard of this novel, A Passage to India by E.M. Forester several years back when I began my deep study of classic literature. Although I knew very little of the story I marked it as a book I wanted to read, mostly because it pertained to Indian culture and history. I was also familiar with the title thanks to the popular 1984 film adaptation that was nominated for an impressive 11 Academy Awards. I hope to watch the movie soon now that I have finished the book. 

The novel was written in 1924 and has been selected by Time Magazine as one of the greatest 100 novels of all time. The author E.M. Forester pulls the title from a poem by Walt Whitman in Leaves of Grass. Forester spent time in India and henceforth was able to provide great insight into this British Raj era, where Britain occupied India. After nearly 60 years of British control a new movement of Indian independence was on the rise and this book highlights some of that growing tension. I was able to capture the gist of the story however often find myself not fully emerged with the details. This is probably due to aged British writing. Nonetheless I found the story and the setting to be very intriguing. 

The Plot

The story takes place in 1920 India where two British women are visiting the fictional city of Chandrapore. Adela Quested is a school mistress and is accompanied by her potential mother in-law Mrs. Moore. They are both visiting Ronny Heaslop, the city magistrate, son of Mrs. Moore. Adela is however conflicted whether or not she wants to marry Ronny and hopes this trip will bring her new insight. Mrs. Moore later encounters a local Indian man at a Mosque named Aziz. At first Aziz is frustrated by her lack of respect in the Mosque but then they come to understand one another and become friends. Mrs. Moore later shares her experience with her son, who becomes agitated by the Indian's lack of submission. 

From this point on both Adela and Mrs. Moore disagree with Ronny's sense of superiority over the Indians, and both women desire to meet real local natives. A member of the British government is able to arrange a social event with some local officials including the principle of the Indian college, Cyril Fielding and his Indian associate Professor Godbole. Mrs. Moore also insists that her new friend Dr. Aziz join the party as well. The party has various social encounters but mostly is one of awkward engagements between the timid Indians and the entitled British. Aziz befriends Cyril Fielding and later invites Mrs. Moore and Adela to explore the Marabar Caves who accept his offer. 

Dr. Aziz goes to great trouble to plan the perfect expedition to the caves and invites Fielding and Prof Godbole to join as well. However Fielding and Godbole miss the train, leaving Aziz alone with Mrs. Moore and Adela. After visiting the first cave, Mrs. Moore becomes very exhausted and decides to sit down for the rest of the day. Meanwhile Aziz and Adela journey into the second cave, where a misunderstanding occurs. Adela mistakenly offends Aziz when she asks him if he has multiple wives. Aziz then takes a moment to excuse himself, at which point Adela leaves him to explore the caves on her own. Aziz later finds her glasses broken on the floor and fears the worse until he sees her in the distant with other British friends, including Fielding. Adela drives off with her British friend, and Aziz returns on train with Mrs. Moore and Fielding. When they arrive at the train station Aziz is arrested for assaulting Adela. 

Aziz is shocked by this wrongful accusation from Adela and his friend Fielding quickly comes to his defense. Nonetheless Aziz is put in jail until there is a trial, which raises the local tension all the more between the Indians and British. Mrs. Moore has become sick and frustrated by the entire situation and returns to England. However her health has failed her and she dies on the way. On the day of the trail Adela withdraws her accusations and it becomes clear that she was merely confused in the caves and Aziz was innocent. Furthermore she decides not to marry Ronny but instead begins a new relationship with Fielding. This upsets Aziz who doesn't understand why his friend would run off with a woman who nearly ruined his life. Aziz then swears to himself that he will not befriend a white person again until India becomes an independent nation. 

Book Review

Although the book was written in present time it can now be seen as a historical fiction. It very much portrays a real setting of India during the 1920s of the British Raj. E.M. Forester clearly provides insightful details about this exotic location that he himself encountered in real life. This surely must have been a groundbreaking work for western literature portraying the tensions within India. Furthermore aside from the political motifs, there was the cultural details that are very well presented in this book. So just as the title suggests E.M. Forester is providing a passage into India for all western readers. This is to better understand their culture, but also their mistreatment by their British occupiers. 

I think the tone is a subtle one, but E.M. Forester is clearly pointing out the injustice towards the Indian people. Dr. Aziz is the victim of a total false indictment and trial merely due to the color of his skin. Thankfully however righteousness endures and Aziz is cleared of all charges. Yet the damage is done in this mistrial, where a once political agnostic, suddenly becomes aware of the racial injustice that is happening in his home country. He even loses faith in his one white friend, Fielding who chooses to chase after the woman who wrongly accused him. So here Forester is demonstrating a character's awakening to the ongoing racial tension of the time, which gave way to the Indian Independence movement. 

I would say the book was rather a simple story in a very complex setting which did make for an intriguing dynamic. It was quite obvious from the get-go that this would be about two cultures trying to understand one another, the good and the bad. However I never really felt any powerful emotions, not a feel-good moment nor a shocking tragic moment. I could see how the book would be considered significant for it's time, but quite frankly I found it to be somewhat mundane. I think what could have been a happy ending between Mrs. Moore and Aziz, or even Fielding and Adela, turned out to be one of spite and hate. I guess that is ultimately what the author was after to leave the reader with the true racial tension in India at the time.  

Historical Study of India

The past couple weeks I have begun my first proper Indian culture phase. The interest has been there for quite some time and I actually have written about Indian history before. This was back in the fall of 2020 when I played the game Assassin's Creed Chronicles set in the British Raj of India. I was inspired by the historical setting of the game which depicts the fall of the Sikh Empire and the establishment of British colonialization. This period lasted for over 100 years from 1858-1947, also known as the British Raj. I have already written and studied this period (see Colonial Age of India) so will not focus on it here. In this post I want to focus on the ancient settlement of India, thru it's middle age of empires and dynasties leading up to this modern period. 

I'll later have a more full study of Indian culture which I know to be rich of religion, cuisine, architecture, and so much more that is new and interesting to me. It's often mixed with the identities of the Middle East or the Asian Orientals, but is in it's own right a very significant and independent civilization. I have know many Indian people in my lifetime, as far back as my elementary days at St. John's New Haven. Our priest, Fr. Derrick, was Indian and one of the most friendly role-models I knew as a youth. I'll later have more on him and other Indian people I have met throughout my lifetime. But first I believe that a study of history should precede a study of culture. 

As most my cultural phases I have embarked on a full submersion of the mediums. Beginning with their cuisine (I have cooked my favorite dish Tikki Masala), the music, the Bollywood films, and reading the classic book A Passage to India by E.M. Foster (I'll later have a full book review on this). But I've only just begun to appease this cultural fascination and as usual believe that in order to better understand it, I must begin with it's historical roots. And I believe that the best way to understand a topic is thru writing. While the experience and reading are vital components, it's the writing of the topic that puts a final stamp on it all. And that's what I intend to do here in this historical study. I will begin with the ancient settlements of India up until the establishment of the British Raj. 

Early Age Kingdoms

The region of India is surrounded by an ocean to it's southern shore with many rivers flowing thru such as the mighty Ganges and Indus Rivers. The climate offers mostly warm temperatures with rich and green cultivation. It is for this reason that the location was very desirable to African migrants as far back as two million years ago. These pre-historic settlements eventually established it's first major civilization in the Indus Valley. From 3300 to 1900 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization was the prominent society in present day India. This was mostly located on the eastern borders of India, along the Indus River, and into the desert lands of present day Pakistan and Afghanistan. This was one of the three major civilizations of the Middle East alongside Mesopotamia (in present day Iraq) and ancient Egypt. 

Following the collapse of this civilization many Indo tribes begin to settle further northwest into the Pujab region along the Yamuni river and the Himalayan mountains. This period in Indian History is known as the Vedic period and brought upon a new birth of cultural and spiritual identity. From 1500-600 BC the Vedic society thrived in the Punjab region and are best known for establishing scriptures and philosophy in their Vedas text. This ancient book established the guidelines of Hinduism, on par with the Bible of Christianity. While many consider Hinduism to be the oldest religion in the world it's practice began during the Vedic period. Hinduism is a cultural staple of India and is the world's third largest religion (at 1.3 billion followers) behind Christianity and Islam. 

The Vedic Age

During this Vedic Age India became distributed by realms and kingdoms known as Janapadas. Some of the most notable of these kingdoms were the Kuru Kingdom (in modern day Delhi), Panchala kingdom (modern day Prayagraj), the Kosala kingdom (modern day Ayodhya), and the Videha kingdom (in modern day Janakpur, Nepal). By around 800 BC a new religious movement known as Srmana arose in which new philosophical and religious ideals emerged. This included the Upanishad texts of Hinduism and the birth of two more religions; Jainism and Buddhism. This movement brought upon new ideals of ascetism and spiritual enlightenment. Jainism was founded by the 24 spiritual teachers "known as tirthankaras" the best known being Mahavira. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha who established the ascetic lifestyle of achieving Nirvana (inner-peace and enlightenment). Buddhism is the world's 4th largest religion at 500 million followers. 

By around 600 to 300 BC there were 16 major kingdoms throughout India know as the Mahajanapadas. These kingdoms flourished with their new religious texts and a boom of urbanization. The strongest of these kingdoms was the Magadha which eventually expanded and swallowed up most of the other kingdoms. It was in this region that Gautama Buddha "The Buddha" lived most of his life and achieved enlightenment under the tree of Bodh Gaya. The Magadha kingdom was later overthrown and replaced by the Nanda Empire in 345 BC well known for their wealth and massive army. 

It was during this time in 327 BC that Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army first marched into the far eastern lands of India. Following years of conquest over the Persian Empire, Alexander was eager to continue his eastward expansion. Traveling thru the Hindu-Kush mountains, he achieved early victories in the Sindh and Punjab regions of northeast India and Pakistan. Establishing new Alexandria cities in the conquered territory. This brought about a new fusion of European and Asian customs. At the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC, Alexander defeated the Pauravas kingdom in one of the bloodiest battles in his campaign. This marked a turning point in his conquest where much of his Macedonian army refused to go any further. Thus the Macedonian Army never came into conflict with the powerful Nanda Empire. 

The Mighty Maurya Empire

By 320 BC a new power in India emerged from the Magadha region led by the warrior king Chandragupta Maurya. He reclaimed the territories conquered by Alexander in the Hindu Kush and later defeated the Nanda Empire to establish the Maurya Empire. This eventually became the largest ever empire within the land of India. From the east it stretched from the Hindu Kush of Pakistan, the Himyalan mountains to it's north, and the Brahmaputra River bordering Bangladesh on it's west. This region reached it's peak during the reign of Ashoka the Great (268-232 BC), who was the grandson of Chandragupta. 

After years of war, particularly the Kalinga War of 261 BC, Ashoka discovered Buddhism and turned his empire into one of non-violence. He brought about a new wave of infrastructure, art, and architecture encouraging the practice of Buddhism thru new shrines and missionaries. It was thanks to Ashoka that Buddhism spread beyond India and into Europe and eastern Asia. However after his reign he was followed by less effective kings and the Maurya Empire quickly began to decline. Soon there was religious division amongst the Buddhists and the Hindus and the civil conflict gave way to renewed occupation from Greece in 180 BC. The Maurya Empire collapsed and the region of India was once again divided by many smaller kingdoms. 

The Shunga, Satavahana, and the Kushan Empire

In 187 BC the Maurya emperor Bridaratha was killed by his general Pushyamitra Shunga which thus overthrew the Maurya Empire and established the Shunga Empire. Based in the eastern region of Pataliputra, the 1st emperor Pushymaitra sought to restore the old Vedic customs of Hinduism and persecuted those that followed Buddhism. While Pushymaitra held power for some 36 years he was unable to reach the heights that the previous Maurya Empire had. The Shunga Empire made some contributions to society but were constantly at war with the neighboring Indian kingdoms. 

Another significant power during this time was the Satavahana Empire which covered most of the mainland center of India. While the kingdom was also always at war with it's neighbors, it also made great contributions to the development of art, trade, and religion. It was here that the Great Stupa of Sanchi was built to commemorate Buddha. The Satavahana dynasty also played a big part in establishing trade with it's foreign neighbors in Pakistan and Bangladesh. 

By around 30 BC, the Kushan Empire was established in the western regions of Hindu Kush (present day Afghanistan) and stretched along the Ganges River as far west as Patna. The kingdom was established by Kujula Kadphises and his grandson Kanishka the Great led the kingdom to it's fullest extent from 127-150 AD. A devout Buddhist, Kanishka encouraged the spiritual practice and played a vital role to develop the Silk Road. This route into China and Europe was not only vital for trade, but for Kanisha was a necessary tool to spread Buddhism. 

The Golden Age of the Gupta Empire

By around the late 3rd century a new power arose in the eastern region of Bengal led by the king Gupta. He established the Gupta dynasty that would eventually span most of mainland India and usher in a golden age for the culture. The Gupta Empire began to expand under the leadership of Chandragupta who reigned from 319 to 350 AD. His son Samudragupta furthered the empire's military conquest that spanned from parts of Bangladesh into the north west of Punjab. During his reign from 335-375 AD, India entered a Golden Age of arts, mathematics, literature, science, astronomy, and philosophy. 

The renaissance continued after his son Chandragupta II succeeded him from 375-415 AD. Chandragupta continued his father's military conquest by expanding the empire even further west to the Indus River. He later became known as the legendary King Vikramaditya (a folktale perhaps on par with the British legend of King Arthur). The Gupta empire reached it's zenith during his reign conquering nearly 20 other Indian kingdoms. The empire flourished with a boom of architecture, art, literature, and trade. India's greatest poet Kalidasa lived during this time writing epic poems based off the Hindu Vedic texts. Also during this time lived the great mathematician Arybhata who made great contributions to astronomy, physics, and establishing the mathematical concept of zero. 

Following the death of Chandagupta II the empire lost some of it's stature and was opposed by new threats. In 455 AD, Skandagupta was able to defeat various foreign invaders as well as crushing a rebellion to restore the empire to it's former strength. For this he is considered the last of the great Gupta leaders, but his reign was short lived. Following his death in 467 AD the Gupta Empire slowly began losing it's massive territory to other Indian kingdoms, most notably the Huns in the northwest. The Huns were eventually driven out by 528 however it came at a great cost to the Guptan Empire, notably damaging it's trade with Europe and Asia. By around 550 AD the empire had collapsed into various other Indian kingdoms once again.  

The Delhi Sultanate

Following the fall of the Guptan Empire, India once again was made up of various smaller kingdoms. This included kingdoms such as the Vakataka Empire based at the central region (250-500 AD); Kamarupa Kingdom based in the northeast Bengal region (350-1140 AD); the Pallava Empire based in the southeast Andhra region (275-897 AD); and the Kadamba Empire based in the southwest region of Karnataka (345-540 AD). This was considered the medieval age for India that gave way to the fall of Buddhism and the rise of Islam. This was due to new Muslim conquests from the Middle East. 

At the time the Middle East was made up of powerful empires known as caliphates. The first significant events of these Muslim campaigns began in the 700s when the Umayyad Caliphate conquered the eastern land of Sindh (which is present day Pakistan). The Persians then furthered their conquest of India in the 11th century under the Abbasid Caliphate. Soon the Indian way of life was replaced by the Persian way of life, most notably changing their religion from Hindu and Buddism to Islam. At this point India became made up of various dynasties led by a Sultan who served as vassals to their Persian caliphates. 

By 1206 the conquering Persians established the Delhi Sultanates which spanned most of present day India. This brought upon yet another golden age of culture with the fusion of Muslim and Indian customs. The sultanate once again opened the door to foreign trade and strengthening it's economic network and technological advancements. Perhaps one of it's finest achievements was repelling numerous invasions from the Mongol Empire from 1227-1327. This was thanks to their Turkic Mamluk slave army who was just as skilled in their nomadic warfare. The Delhi Sultanate was one of the few Asian nations able to defeat the Mongolian conquests and helped bring about their collapse. 

However with the fall of the Mongolian Empire, came the rise of a new power in Central Asia under the leadership of Timur (also known as Tamerlane). He was brought up as Mongolian-Turkic warrior and quickly became a revered war commander. He considered himself the heir to Genghis Khan and established the Timurid Empire in 1370 based out of present day Uzbekistan. He achieved many victories over the Persian Caliphates, the Ottoman Empire, and the Delhi Sultanate. Timur sacked the thriving city of Delhi in 1398 bringing forth great massacre and ruin. From this point on the Sultanate was on the decline and by 1526 Timur's grandson Babur overtook it to establish the Mughal Empire. 

The Mughal Empire

By the late 1400s, the Timurid Empire had begun to decline and lose territory to the Persian army of the Aq Qoyunlu Confederation. However the Timurid prince Babur first achieved a significant victory in 1504 by invading and sieging Kabul. He was able to establish a new kingdom at the center of modern day Afghanistan which he used to strengthen his army. Twenty years later he marched for the coveted capital of Delhi that his grandfather once conquered. In 1526 Babur defeated the Lodi Dynasty at the First Battle of Panipat using the latest Turkish firearms. With this victory Babur was able to claim the city of Delhi as his and thus establish the Mughal Empire. However there was still much work to do. 

The Sultanate was still comprised of various kingdoms throughout India, and Babur's rise to power was quickly challenged. The first greatest adversary was the Mewar Kingdom of northern India led by their great king Rana Sagna. However Sagna's army of 100,000 Rajput warriors were no match for Babur's advanced firearms. At the bloody Battle of Khanwa in 1527 Babur was able to defeat Sagna's mighty Mewar Kingdom, much thanks to this new use of gunpowder. This was a decisive victory for Babur's conquest of India and the start of the Mughal Empire.

The empire quickly spanned across the vast region once controlled by the ancient Maurya Empire. Babur introduced new Turkish/Ottoman customs to India and unlike the previous Muslim conquerors who wanted to replace the Indian culture, Babur sought to diversify it. This further advanced India into a more modern state mixed of Indian, Middle-Eastern, Asian, and now Ottoman traits. While Delhi was the Empire's booming metropolis, the outskirt city of Agra soon became it's central capital. Following Babur's death in 1530, the Empire received new challenges from the Sur Empire in it's northern region. However Babur's son Humayun was able to suppress this threat and restore their control by 1555.

Humayun's son Akbar, became one of the greatest rulers of the Mughal Empire (from 1556-1605). He established an administrative system to his empire and made peace with other challenging dynasties thru arranged marriages. While Akbar himself was Muslim, he welcomed religious tolerance and established policies that did not persecute Hindus or Buddhists. During this time when Renaissance was spreading all throughout Europe, the Indian-Persian culture really began to take shape. Akbar was a patron of the arts and encouraged new literature and calligraphy. By the 1580s he established a new religion of Din-i Ilahi which combined the beliefs of Muslim, Indian religions, and even elements of Christianity. Thru his religious tolerance Akbar became admired by both Muslim and native Indian people. 

Akbar's son Jahngir was not quite as popular with the native Indians and favored more the Muslim principles. He quickly came into conflict with the growing Indian religion of Sikhism (founded by Guru Nanek) by executing their Guru Arjan for not converting to Islam. Jahngir's son Shan Jahan ushered in an era of Mughal architecture. It was during this time that the iconic monument of India, the Taj Mahal was built from 1631-1653. The building was commissioned by Jahan as a monumental mausoleum (tomb) to house the bodies of him and his wife. It was a very costly project and equally as costly to maintain however to this day remains one of the world's great wonders. 

The Maratha Empire

As the emperor Shan Jahan grew ill, their was civil conflict between his two sons over who would inherit the throne. The younger son Aurangzeb had his elder brother killed and his father imprisoned until his death. Aurangzeb thus ascended to the throne in 1658 and instituted harsh persecutions of non-Islams, which lead to the execution of another Sikh guru in 1675. This led to further tension with the native Sikh community who began to militarize. Aurangzeb was regarded as the most controversial of the Mughal emperors and left the kingdom in open revolt. Following his death in 1707 the empire began it's decline and started to break up into various vassals of the growing Maratha Confederacy. The Marathan Empire defeated the Mughal Empire after the 27 year Deccan war from 1680-1707. Furthermore the Mughal Empire suffered a devastating sack of Delhi by the Persians in 1740. 

The Marathan Empire essentially became the empire of non-Muslims who favored Hinduism, Buddhism, Janism, and Sikhism. By 1757 the Marathan Empire had seized most of the Mughal Empire and became the new dominant power of India. In 1771 the Marathans recaptured Delhi from Persian control and the Mughals were forced to turn to the British for aid. The British East India Company had established a trade presence in India as far back as the 1600s notably in the Bay of Bengal and the city of Bombay (present day Mumbai). Naturally the Maratha Empire posed a threat to their business and so began the Anglo-Maratha wars first in 1775. The Marathans were able to defeat the British at the Battle of Wadgaon in 1779 causing the East India company to relinquish much of it's bases. However this led to heightened tensions and the subsequent Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (from 1803-1818) in which the British Empire crushed the Maratha Empire. 

It did not take long after this for all Indian empires (the Maratha, Mughal, and the Sikh Empires) to be controlled by the British East India Company. The Indians made one final stand in the 1857 Rebellion however lost nearly 800,000 people to the British conquest. By 1858 the British Raj was established that essentially colonized India. This was no different then the colonization of the Americas and all of India was a conquered land. That is until the rise of Mahatma Gahndi who led India to their independence in 1947. India is now it's own democratic nation with a thriving culture of religious tolerance.