Historical Study: American Slavery

So just as I promised I will now give a full detailed summary of the dark history of slavery in the United States. I consider this to be America's most atrocious institutions in history, even more so then the wickedly cruel removal of the Native Americans. It's quite mind-boggling to me to consider that slavery such as this existed only 150 years ago. This barbaric treatment of humanity is no different than the slaves of ancient Egypt or Rome, forced to work until death. It's a topic I often avoid as it is very depressing, however think everyone should be well versed in this past. In order to seek enlightenment one must understand all aspects of history and reasoning. 

For me my fascination with a historical topic is often derived from a movie I watch. When it comes to the topic of slavery, there's a few movies that stand out to me; Gone with the Wind (1939), Glory (1989), Amistad (1997), Lincoln (2012), Django Unchained (2012), 12 Years a Slave (2013), and Harriet (2019). These are all very good movies and I would consider 12 Years a Slave probably the heaviest when it comes to artistic, dramatic, and emotional quality. But this summer I've expanded my historical sources with more reading, which gives me even better insight into the era. I have recently read several classic books such as the Narrative of Frederick Douglass as an American Slave, Up from Slavery by Booker T. Washington, and the famous iconic novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom's Cabin (which I am half way thru and will later have a book review to come).

It's quite shocking to think that this institution of slavery essentially built the United States of America. From it's early discovery, thru it's colonial age, the revolution, and the establishment of a nation it was the African Americans behind most if it's production. And to be fair it wasn't just the white Americans partaking in this means of production, yet also the Europeans (who brought it to an by the early 1800s). Most northern states followed suit and also abolished slavery from 1780-1804. However the south persisted in their unruly systematic means of production, seeing slavery not as a moral wrong yet as a necessary way of business. For them it was just a way of life, and of course there were those who abused it more than others. 

I always try to look at a controversial topic from both sides, but there can be no question whatsoever that slavery was completely immoral. And the South cannot take the entire brunt of the blame, since they did not establish it, yet were just the last to get rid of it. I suppose from the Southerners perspective their business was primarily in agriculture and long before the days of tractors and farm equipment, their labor force was their slaves. However the big question then comes why couldn't the southerners just pay their field workers and not own them like livestock. This ultimately leads to the sad truth of racism; by which still exists today this notion of white superiority. 

It's funny how you often meet kind and mean people in all races, nations, religions, and creeds. Everyone has different ideological beliefs, and yet all people (no matter their gender, race, or beliefs) thrive for righteousness. There is a common human element of goodness in every person. But this notion of ethnic superiority is purely wicked, and has led to some of history's most darkest chapters (the Spanish Inquisition, the removal of Native Americans, Slavery, and the Holocaust). There can even be kind people (so-called "Christians") who believe their racist ideology is for the betterment of humanity, and still this is very misplaced. It's one thing to fear what you do not understand, but it's an entirely different matter to hate someone because they are different. 

The Atlantic Slave Trade

Now human slavery has been around since the early pre-historic civilizations, ever since one group was able to conquer another. This method of forced labor proved to be more productive then killing their prisoners. All great ancient civilizations were built by the hands of slaves, as far back as Egypt, China, Greece, Rome, even the Mayans. The conquest and utilization of African slaves began to boom during the Age of Discovery in the 1500s. The reasoning for this was due to the sudden need for a labor force in the booming colonies. Even though the Spanish conquerors had enslaved the natives, they still needed more workers. Portugal was the first European nation to raid African settlements in the Canary Islands and use them as slaves. 

By the mid 1500s both Spain and Portugal had conquered many tribes along Western Africa and established the Atlantic Slave Trade. It should also be noted that many African nations worked with the Europeans to sell off slaves to them. Most of these acquisitions came from the coastal regions of Congo, Angola, Ghana, Nigeria, Guinea, Senegal, and Cameroon to name a few. The majority were sent to the Caribbean Islands and Brazil. Nearly 2 million due to the miserable conditions of their journey; chained and packed-in tight within the ship's cargo hold. Of the 12.5 million African slaves shipped to America only 388,000 were sent directly to North America. 

Britain arrived to the northern colonies with slightly less cruel methods than the Spanish and Portuguese had. They were first willing to compromise with the natives and utilized a system of indentured servants, which were basically prisoners from their homeland working for their freedom. However by the mid-1600s as their settlements grew, so to did their need for more laborers. In 1641 Massachusetts became the 1st colony to authorize slavery, and soon after other colonies followed suit. The early trade began with the more established Caribbean islands, but by 1672 the Royal African Company was established as the primary British/African slave trade into the colonies. 

By 1710 Virginia had become the most populated slave state, with 42% of the slaves in America (Maryland was 2nd with 14% of the nation's slaves). By 1730 colonial merchants began to challenge Britain's monopoly on the Atlantic trade, and soon established a domestic slave trade. In the north these slaves worked as house servants, laborers, craftsman, and in the shipyards. In the south the conditions were far worse as most slaves worked in the hot labor-intensive plantations. The laws did not protect the slaves, only that they were the property of their owner, no different than livestock. Each owner had different methods of treating their slaves (some fairly while some cruelly).   

Slave Trade after American Revolution

At the outbreak of the American Revolution, the slaves found themselves in a unique middle-ground, similar to the Native Americans, on whose side to favor. At the time slavery had become lest popular in Europe, and Britain promised to free all slaves who fought on their side. However in 1781 General Washington replicated this offer to any slave who fought with the patriots. So the slaves fought on both side, while others saw the conflict as a great opportunity to escape. By the end of the war the British evacuated America with nearly 20,000 freed African slaves (some were relocated to Nova Scotia, the Caribbean Islands, and to England).

During the American Revolutionary War, the abolitionist fervor had spread throughout Europe and also the northern colonies of America. In 1777 the Vermont Republic became the first region to abolish slavery in it's territory. By 1780 Pennsylvania, led by Benjamin Franklin began gradual abolition. Other northern colonies followed suit of gradual abolition, such as Massachusetts and New Hampshire in 1783, Connecticut and Rhode Island in 1784, New York in 1799, and New Jersey in 1804. However the south had no intention whatsoever to abolish slavery, which made for a very divided nation along the Mason-Dixon line. 

Furthermore despite the abolitionist fervor in the north, the south held a stronger grasp of the federal government much thanks to the Three-Fifths Compromise. This clause in the US Constitution counted slaves as three-fifths of a human being, who although did not have the right to vote still were to be counted as such in the population census. This clause gave southern Congressional representatives the upper majority of political affairs, especially since their represented slaves could not vote. In the nation's first 50 years most presidents, Supreme Court justices, and prominent federal authorities came from the south. 

By 1808 the importation of foreign slaves had become unconstitutional however this increased the domestic trade, specifically in the south. Since the children of slaves, were also considered the property of their owner, they were often separated from their parents and sold. Many slaveholders would encourage their slaves to reproduce so that they could continue to make money off of them. By the 1830s Virginia remained the capital of American slavery and soon began sending thousands to the Deep Southern states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. These states offered vast land with a rich climate that boomed in cotton. These southerners also did not hesitate to exploit the attractive female slaves, and would often sleep with them or sell their services in brothels. New Orleans became the  thriving metropolis of the southern slave trade. 

Abolitionist Movement

By the mid 1700s, anti-slavery fervor had become quite public throughout Britain and America. For many years prior to the revolution, the Quakers were one of the first Christian denominations to condemn this institution. They simply considered the enslavement of another human being as unjust and un-Christian. Soon after many other Christian denominations and prominent thinkers took to this belief, that challenged the legal institution. At the onset of the American Revolution, writers such as Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, and Samuel Sewel made their opposition well known thru the publication of widespread pamphlets. 

From 1780-1800 the north followed thru with their anti-slavery notions and completely abolished it. However the south continued to institute their system of slavery, which quickly led to political difference between the north and the south. The abolitionist movement thus quickly began to grow as the outspoken opponents against legalized slavery. By 1830 this movement took proper shape under the leadership of William Lloyd Garrison and his publication called The Liberator. He was later able to recruit Frederick Douglas to share his story with the masses. Douglas became one of the first well-spoken runaway slaves and a prominent abolitionists in his own regards. 

As runaway slaves became more frequent from the 1840-1850s, the south was able to push for the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850. This essentially required that all escaped slaves (in the north or the south) be returned to the authorities and returned to their masters. This was a very controversial federal law, and further demonstrated the congressional power the South held. In response to this many runaway slaves moved to Canada, while the abolitionists heightened their outcry. Harriet Beecher Stowe's published Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1851 and quickly became the nation's best-selling book. President Lincoln who was also an abolitionist would later give credit to this book for starting the Civil War. 

Colonization Movement

One of the big problems with the anti-slavery fervor was what exactly to do with all the African-Americans after they were free. The southern pro-slavery leaders would often use this as their defense calling slavery a necessary evil for the betterment of society. They felt this system was upholding the wealth of the nation, and was good for both the master and the enslaved. This was a common debate among those for and against slavery, on what came next after slavery. There were those who favored immediate abolition and deal with it all later, and some who favored a colonized option. This movement was primarily led by the American Colonization Society from the 1820-1830s.

The group was founded by prominent Quaker abolitionists such as Robert Finley and Henry Clay. In 1820 they were able to establish a colony in West Africa, later known as Liberia, with the intent to relocate all African Americans to their homeland. However the movement was not very popular among blacks and other leading Abolitionists. The blacks felt it would be imprudent to uproot from where they were born and raised. The abolitionists, such as William Lloyd Garrison considered the entire project a fraud, that was not solving the problem yet rather sending it elsewhere. Only a few thousand blacks partook in this project and emigrated to Liberia. Later movements led by Marcus Gravey revisited this concept of returning to live in Africa. 

The Underground Railroad

I remember about ten years ago, Philip, Shawnna, and myself went on a historical interactive experience pertaining to the Underground Railroad at Conner Prairie in Noblesville. The setting gave quite a realistic perspective on the fear these slaves must have felt as they were breaking the law while escaping for their freedom. I think it was also around this time that I realized that the legendary "underground railroad" was not actually a railroad. It was a system of safe-houses and routes scattered throughout the northern states that helped slaves escape. These safe-houses were organized by abolitionists who gave the runaways shelter and resources as they moved further north or were able to secure their freedom.

This term "underground" usually refers to a secretive organization that is breaking the law. Consider the many underground resistance movements during WWII in occupied-German territories. Or the persecuted Jews who sought shelter and escape. In order for an underground network to operate however you need free citizens to support the "supposed crime". In the case of the underground railroad the system was secretly organized by abolitionists thru word-of-mouth. These good-hearted people established a network of meeting points, transportation modes, routes, and safe-houses to shelter run-away slaves. William Still was one of the key focal points of the operation based out of Philadelphia. He established communication with slaves and abolitionists alike, and received many run-away slaves in his home. For this organization he is often regarded as the Father of the Underground Railroad. 

However the most iconic figures of the Underground Railroad was no doubt Harriet Tubman. She actually went into the battlefields various times and helped over 70 slaves escape. She escaped herself from Dorchester Country, Maryland in 1849 and was able to find refuge in Philadelphia thru the Underground Network. Throughout the 1850s she returned to slave territory make 7 trips to save her family and friends. Considering that she was a wanted fugitive and was risking her own freedom to help others escape makes her one of the greatest true heroes of all time. She was often referred to as the Moses of the black people, and rightfully so. She later became an outspoken leader of the abolitionist movement and associated with other leading figures such as Frederick Douglas and the radical John Brown.  

Slave Rebellions

Ever since the institution of slavery was enacted there were countless cases of resistance and rebellions, quite naturally so. However most cases were quite minimal and never ended well for the slaves. This was mostly due to the impossible odds the slaves faced against their oppressors. They were quite often physically abused and threatened by whippings and beatings. Furthermore they were rarely educated and encouraged to be illiterate so as not to get smart on their owners. This setting made for no chance whatsoever of an organized rebellion, however there still were several instances of uprisings, which surely happens when your life is at threat. 

One of the first notable rebellions to occur post-Independence, was Gabriel Prosser's plot in Richmond, VA that was later discovered in the year 1800. Another mysterious account is that of the Igbo Landing in 1803 where a ship of slaves overthrew their masters, and later committed mass-suicide in the waters rather than submit to slavery. One of the first major violent confrontations occurred in the 1811 German Coast Uprising. Here a group of about 200 slaves joined together and actually stood against militia in New Orleans, before they were suppressed.

 In 1831 Nat Turner led perhaps the bloodiest of rebellions, killing nearly 65 people in Southampton County, Virginia (most of which were women and children). He was later captured and executed, and in response to this massacre the militia executed nearly 120 slaves in the area. Another notable case was that of the Amistad seizure in 1839, however this ship was destined for Cuba and did not pertain to American slave-owners.

Perhaps the most significant of the slave revolts was that of John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859. The famed white abolitionist felt he was called by God to lead this slave uprising, and it could only be achieved thru violent means. He thus organized a raid with 22 insurgents (white abolitionists and black-slaves) on the Harpers Ferry Armory, with hopes to seize the weapons and arm more soldiers. While he was successful in seizing the fort, he was not reinforced by his slave army and thus became trapped in the engine house. At this point General Robert E. Lee arrived to the scene and quickly suppressed the rebellion. John Brown was later captured and executed however this tragic scene later became considered as the dress rehearsal for the Civil War to come.  

The Emancipation Proclamation

By 1861 the tension over slavery had finally reached it's tipping point that led to the Civil War between the northern Union states and the southern Confederate states. There were four border states, consisting of Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, and Delaware who remained slave states during the war, yet did not chose to secede with the Confederacy. At the onset of the fighting, President Lincoln realized it would be in the best interest to end slavery outright while he was still in power. He thus issued this executive order in 1863 at the risk of losing the border states and even the Civil War entirely. It brought an abrupt end to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 and encouraged the 3.5 million slaves still in captivity in the south.

Despite the Emancipation Proclamation, the slaves could not be entirely free until the Confederates were defeated. However the act did lead to heightened escapes as many slaves fled north taking advantage of the chaos of the war. By 1864 realizing the war was in their favor, Lincoln pushed Congress to abolish slavery entirely with the 13th amendment. It was finally signed and became official on December 6th, 1865. The Confederates had lost the war and all slaves were finally free. However even despite this new legal freedom, the change was a gradual one. 

The period after the Civil War is known as the Reconstruction Era, mostly so for the south. It's not so much that they were repairing damaged buildings, yet more so repairing their way of life. Slavery in the south was legally replaced by convict leasing, peonage, and sharecropping. This basically offered the slaves pay and freedom to still live and work on the plantations. A good majority of the slaves moved north in the Great Migration seeking an entirely new way of life. Even despite the new legal protection of black Americans they still endured heavy persecution in the years to follow. It was not until 1870 that they got the right to vote and legal protection from the KKK. In 1965 segregation came to an end and the Civil Rights Act was passed. Still to this day black American's are facing the wickedness of systemic racism. 

Famous Slaves

• 
  Sojourner Truth (1797-1883): Escaped slave from New York, she became the first black person to win a court case against a white man. This brought her instant fame and recognition and with that she became a leading abolitionist, writer, and public speaker. Her greatest claim to fame was her speech, "Ain't I a Woman?", delivered at the women's convention Akron, Ohio 1851. 

• Dred Scott (1799-1858): Was famous for suing the federal court for his family's freedom in 1857. Although Dred lost the case, 7-2, the Dred Scott vs Stanford case became a defining event leading to the Civil War. This case ruled African Americans could not claim citizenship which intensifying the tension between the pro-and-anti slavery bases. Following the publicity of this case, Dred Scott was later sold and freed however died a year later due to tuberculosis. 

• Nat Turner (1800-1831): Escaped slave from Virginia who led the largest slave revolt in American history. In 1831 he led a rebellion of nearly 160 slaves in Southampton County, Virginia. His band killed nearly 65 white citizens, many of which were women and children. He was later captured and executed which led to further black massacres throughout the region in response to this uprising. 

• Solomon Northrup (1807-1875): Free-born African American from New York who was kidnapped and traded into slavery in Louisiana. For 12 years he unjustly served in the fields unable to contact his family in the north. After finally achieving his freedom he published a narrative in 1853 regarding the unjust experience. The book became a popular abolitionist writing.  

• Frederick Douglas (1818-1895): Escaped slave from Maryland who went on to become one of the first prominent African American writers and statesmen. He published his biography as a slave in 1845 which became a bestseller, a groundbreaking insight into slavery. After this Douglas became a leading abolitionist and social activist for the remainder of his life. He gave many speeches and published three biographies in total, detailing the cruel injustice of slavery. He later became a statesmen for the federal government before his death.  

• Harriet Tubman (1822-1913): Escaped slave from Maryland, she was the definitive hero of the Underground Railroad, often referred to as the "black Moses". She made 7 daring trips into the slave states and guided over 70 slaves to freedom. She later became a leading abolitionist, and associated with Frederick Douglas and John Brown. During the Civil War she served as a scout and led a regiment of black soldiers. After the war she continued her service of social activism for blacks and women's suffrage. 

• Booker T. Washington (1856-1915): Born into slavery in Virginia, he achieved freedom at the age of 9 thanks to President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. Few years later after he excelled in higher education and became an activist for black rights. He fought against the disenfranchisement and Jim Crow laws that segregated many blacks from fair opportunities. He is often most associated with his Atlanta Compromise, that sought to compromise between white authority yet fair education and protection for blacks. While many activists later saw this as a submission, Booker considered it a necessary step to further progress. 

Game Review: Assassin's Creed Chronicles India

After playing four consecutive Assassin's Creed games set in the Americas (Black Flag, Rogue, AC III, and Liberation) it was nice to return to the eastern hemisphere. This time I embarked on the setting of British occupied-India in the 1840s in the game AC Chronicles: India. The format is quite different than most major AC games, in that it is a 2.5D side-scrolling game. The Ubisoft developers released a 3-part side-scrolling series set in China, India, and Russia. Having already played and enjoyed the format of AC China, I knew what to expect with this game. While I enjoyed the setting and art, I did not expect it to be so difficult. 

I found AC China to be fairly easy and the assassin Shao Jun could usually fight her way out of a tense situation. However that was not the case for Arbaaz Mir, the assassin from Kashmir, India. While he no doubt embodies the suave and stealthy Assassin prototype, he simply lacks in combat fortitude. Most of the missions in this game rely entirely on stealth and assassination kills and not very forgiving otherwise. What I especially despise in AC games is failing a mission due to being detected. This was quite common in this game, and I find it to be extremely frustrating to not be able to hide, run, or fight your way out of a situation. To be fair he does have an arsenal of special Helix attacks, and a chakram used for cutting down objects. 

Of the 10 sequences in this game, I think I found all but 2 to be very difficult. I would even go as far as saying this was the most challenging AC game I have played yet (and I've played almost all of them). As I mentioned before the reason for this is abrupt desynchronization in the game due to being detected or not achieving a mission fast enough. There were also various puzzles with climbs and jumps that must be done to perfection otherwise it led to failure. I suppose this is to be expected from a side-scroller game, and it's challenging nature is not so much a criticism on the overall quality of the game.

There were several tasks in this game I had to do over and over again for many times. Some examples are, I believe it was sequence 3 I had to sneak past about 10 guards undetected and assassinate a person moving very quickly. Another example (maybe in sequence 8) was sniping many guards without anyone noticing. This required strategy and quick shooting to clear the tower and acheive the task. Perhaps the hardest task for me was in the final sequence 10, that included evading a puckle gun and reaching the final villain. 

However despite it's challenging sequences, the setting of the game was quite majestic. It had all the colorful and exotic backdrop that you would expect from an Indian desert. From the plants, the buildings, the colorful costumes, to even exotic animals such as tigers and giant elephants. The palaces of Amritsar were quite magnificent and reminded me of the Sultanate settings from the Disney film Aladdin. Quite frankly the assassin of Arbaaz reminded me very much of Aladdin with his background in thievery and his love for the princess, Pyara. His outfit was reminiscent of Bayek's, a fellow Middle Eastern assassin from Egypt who packed way more of a punch however. 

I would say this game had a very unique quality to it and did inspire me on Indian history and culture. From the music, the gameplay, the costumes, and the setting it was a total homage to the culture of India which is what I love about these games. I also enjoy the brushing painting artistry of this game that is evident during the gameplay yet more so during the transitional story. This element was what I especially enjoyed about AC China, and would expect it to be included in AC Russia (I only hope AC Russia isn't as difficult as AC India was). So now next up for me will be a deep dive into AC: Syndicate, one that I am very much looking forward to as it deals with Victorian Britain. 

Historical Study: Colonial Age of India

With every Assassin's Creed game I play comes a new fascination in a historical era. This time it is a curiosity into the history of the British Raj thanks to the game Assassin's Creed Chronicles: India. I'll later have a full review about this challenging side-scrolling game. The game is specifically set during the Anglo-Sikh Wars of the 1840s which lead to the fall of the Sikh Empire. The Sikh Empire was the final Indian Empire to succumb to British control by 1849. Just like the British settled and colonized the Americas in the 1600s, they did so with the region of India. Having territory in the Americas, Australia, Africa, and India once can certainly uncertainly understand the famous phrase "The sun never sets on the British Empire".

In this post I would like to get a general understanding of the colonization of India. It was an Asian territory full of great riches, culture, and history and it became the forefront of western Europe's expansion during the Age of Discovery. Someday I may take a deeper dive into Indian history and culture (love their food, music, and friendly people) but for now I want to focus primarily on the colonial age of the land. This essentially began in 1498 with Vasco de Gama's new discovery, which later led to the establishment of an entirely British colonial government, and finally to the independence of the sovereignty of India in 1947. 

Age of Discovery

It's often overlooked that the great European explorers such as Christopher Columbus, were not seeking a new world, yet rather a new route to India. Unlike the discovery of the Americas the existence of India was already well established and known by the western Europeans for some time. It is well documented that the Roman Empire held trade with the eastern Kushan Empire as far back as 30 AD. The culture of this land became better understood thanks to the explorations of Marco Polo in the late 1200s. The spice trade with India flourished by the early renaissance, however the arrival of the Ottoman Empire in the late 1400s, complicated matters in the Arabian Sea. Soon the Western powers had to find a new route to trade with India. 

Columbus was the first significant explorer to set sail from Europe on a new western route to reach India. By 1492 he thought he had achieved his mission in discovering a new rout to India, and did not realize until sometime later that he actually discovered a new world. He even called the natives "Indians" since he believed he was in the land of India. It was not until years later, much thanks to the publications of Amerigo Vespucci that it became commonly accepted that Columbus did not discover a new route to India, yet rather an entirely new world. While this was of course a monumental discovery the initial desire to reach India was still not yet resolved. 

It was not until 1498, that Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reached the Cape of Good Hope, in Calicut India on the first ever circumnavigation of the world. From this point on the Portuguese Empire established various trading posts on the western coast of India. However just like with the land of America, the land of India was heavily contested among the other great European powers such as the Dutch, Danish, and French. By the early 1600s the British and Dutch trading companies began to threaten Portugal's monopoly on the region. By around this time the Portuguese Empire was consumed by King Philip II's Spanish Empire and slowly withdrew from India to focus on their colonies in Latin America. 

The territory of India was then heavily contested by the Netherlands and British during the Anglo-Dutch Wars. By 1688 Prince William of Orange established peace and divided the Indian trade; the Dutch kept hold of the spice trade while the British took on the textile trade. At the time it seemed the Dutch had the better side of the deal, since spice was far more profitable at the time. However by the early 1700s the market had shifted and soon the British East India Company had the stronger foothold in India. 

East India Company

By this point the mighty Mughal Empire of India was in decline and easily influenced by the western European forces. The greatest opposition to the British conquest came from the Bengal Subah, which was a subsidiary of the Mughal Empire on it's eastern front (in present day Bangladesh). However in 1757 the British squashed this resistance at the Battle of Plassey. From this point on the British East India Company had dominion over trade throughout the Indian region. It should be noted that this was a privately owned company based out of London, quite similar to the Virginia Company that discovered Jamestown, Virginia. 

While the East India Company operated privately they were still heavily backed and supported by the British monarchy. This was especially the case for various military engagements that occurred against smaller Indian Empires. The first of these was the Anglo-Mysore Wars from 1767-1799 on the southern coast; the Anglo-Maratha Wars from 1775-1818 on the western coast; and the Anglo-Sikh Wars from 1845-1849 in the northwestern region near Pakistan. The Sikh Empire was the final major Indian Empire to fall to British control and is the setting of AC Chronicles: India. 

Indian Rebellion of 1857

Another major turning point in the British occupancy of India came in 1857 it what is referred to as the Indian Rebellion of 1857. There can be no question that the local natives had grown weary of their foreign invaders since they're arrival. Just like the Native American's resisted the colonists so too did the people of India. The sentiment against British dominance surely began to grow after the fall of many prominent Indian empires such as the Mughal, the Mysore, the Maratha, and the Sikh Empires by 1850. The movement was actually organized by British-trained Indian soldiers, known as Sepoys. Soon mutiny and uprisings began to spread like a wildfire all across India in the year 1857.

The militant uprisings were quickly supported by the remnants of the Mughal Empire who hoped to establish a well organized resistance. However the British East India Company quickly responded with harsh violence against the mutineers (consisting of blowing them from cannons). The Rebellion did not last long and by 1857 the entire tension was subdued. It should be noted that while some Indians hoped for a revolution at this point, the majority of locals still supported British control (just like the Loyalist Tories had in Colonial America). Nonetheless this unsuccessful rebellion served as a rallying cry for the later Independence Movement to come.  

Establishment of the British Raj 

Following the events of the Great Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British government decided to intercede on the governance of India. In 1858 the East India Company was replaced by the establishment of the British Raj. This became the primary system of government in India, answering to the crown in Britain (who at the time was Queen Victoria). The position of Viceroy Governor General was established in West Bengal to oversee all the British Indian territories consisting of Punjab, Bengal, Bombay, Madras, and other regions. 

Thru British oversight, India had now established a new system of democracy and free trade. However they still endured civil struggles and terrible famines from the the 1870-1890s that led to the death of nearly 20 million people. Also during this time tension arose between Britain and Russia known as the Great Game, over territory in the Middle East and India. By the start of the 20th century, inspired by the revolutions of China and Russia, the Indian Independence movement began to gain steam. During WWI this evolved into a mass movement led by prominent public figures such as Mahatma Gandhi. 

Partition of India

The honorable Gandhi studied law in London and later returned to his home nation of India in 1915 to lead the Indian Independence movement. His primary objective was to fight high taxation, poverty, persecution, and especially British control. As an elected official of the Indian National Congress in 1924 he united the nation and began protests thru non-violence and civil disobedience. He also conducted long fasts without food as a means of public protest and spiritual purification. While there were many other political leaders who fought for India's independence, Gandhi is mostly associated as the key leading figure in this regard.

After WWII the movement finally gave way to the Indian Independence Act of 1947. The United Kingdom thus ended their authority over India and granted India's it's own sovereignty. The great Gandhi died a year later having achieved his goal and witnessed the new constitution of India; Vallabhai Patel became the nation's 1st prime minister. The British Raj was partitioned into two dominions, Pakistan and India. Border disputes continue to this day between Pakistan and India, however they have both become very prominent nations. Pakistan is the 5th most populated nation in the world, while India has the 5th highest GDP and 2nd highest population behind only China. 

Biography of Frederick Douglass

In continuing with my study of classic American literature and history, I now turn to the dark history of slavery. It's a very depressing topic that I often tend to overlook, yet nonetheless it is an undeniable truth of America's vicious history. On par with the removal of Native Americans, the slavery of African Americans was the most inhumane event in American history that should not be ignored. Especially in these days of the Black Lives Matter movement, a recent social upheaval calling for an end to systemic racism. I think it's fair to say that the blacks have come a long way since the days of slavery but still their is a long way to go for justice and equality. I'll later get more into the history of slavery but for now I want to focus on one it's earliest heroes; Frederick Douglass.

I recently zipped thru his autobiography, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass an American Slave, and found myself quite awe-inspired. Here was a first hand account of someone who experienced the cruel and unforgiving lifestyle of being a slave for nearly 20 years. No account before this had ever been so vivid with detail, and it's publication in 1845 quickly became a bestseller. Thru this publication the abolition movement gained traction and Frederick Douglas became it's leading voice for social reform. Even after the Emancipation Proclamation he continued a life dedicated to justice and equality for all people; white, black, women, native, and immigrants. 

What is most incredible about Frederick's life story is the complete transition he underwent. This is the ultimate rags-to-riches story, of a man entrapped in slavery who is able to acheive his freedom, and furthermore use that freedom for the betterment of his kin and humanity. His biography is like something out of a movie, but real life adventure, suspense, and drama. He is like Moses, a slave and leader of Israel seeking the Promise Land. He is like Patrick Henry and the Patriots before him, set on liberty or death. He endures many near death hardships before he finally achieves this goal. 

Life as a Slave

In his autobiography Frederick makes it clear that it is not known to him exactly what day he was born (however it is later determined to be in the year 1818). He also details the sad account by which he was separated from his mother as an infant and raised by his grandmother near the Chesapeake Bay of Maryland. He was of mixed-race yet never learns of his white father. At age 6 he began his slave work for the Auld family in Easton, Maryland. Two years later he was fortunate to serve the family in the city of Baltimore, rather than the rural plantation fields. It was during his youth in the city that he learned to read and write as a young boy.

It was during his youth in Baltimore that Frederick developed an intellectual capacity from the books he read, quite uncommon from most other slaves. This gave way to his early ambition for freedom, which was constantly at scorn with the slave-owners. Frederick even details in his biography that his discovery to read, was his greatest liberation yet also his greatest enemy. For several months he taught other slaves how to read the New Testament yet this entire operation was later squashed by other slave-owners. They ultimately feared that an educated slave would be a dangerous slave. 

Much to Frederick's dismay he was later relocated to the plantation in 1833 to work for a wicked farmer named Edward Covey. As a young teenager Frederick endured many whippings from Covey which he states broke his body, mind, and soul. Yet one day Frederick chooses to fight back and Covey withdraws his whippings from that point on. Frederick later considers this a major turning point in his life by which he went from a slave to becoming a man. This urge to resist demonstrated Frederick's inner strength and furthered his desire to be free. 

In his autobiography he mentions various accounts by which he plotted his escape, always conflicted by the severe punishment of escape yet the glorious feeling of freedom. After several years in the plantation he later returned to work in the city for William Freeland. During this time Frederick worked at the shipyards as a caulker and was even able to acquire some wage (though he gave the majority of his earnings to his master). While in the city however Frederick made many friends and fell in love with a free black woman named Anne Murray. It was thru her help that he was able to board a train to the north dressed as a sailor with protection papers. He eventually arrived to New York City, where he found refuge with an abolitionist named David Ruggies. 

Abolitionist, Preacher, and Writer

In 1838 Frederick married Anne Murray and began his new life of freedom in New Bedford, MA changing his surname from Bailey to Douglass. He quickly found work in the shipyards cutting wood, shoveling coal, and various other labor tasks. While the work was very dirty and physically demanding he was very pleased to be working now as a free man, able to collect his full dues. In his new found community, Frederick did not waste much time to get involved with social and religious organizations. By 1839 he had become a notable preacher and orator and soon caught the attention of other prominent abolitionists.  

He later established a partnership with William Lloyd Garrison, a leading figure of the abolitionist movement thru his publication of the Liberator. Soon Frederick Douglass was giving lectures to large anti-slavery assemblies throughout the northern states. One time in particular in Pendleton, Indiana he was nearly attacked to death before he was saved by a local Quaker family. By 1845 at the urging of William Lloyd, Frederick wrote and published his autobiography describing his life as a slave and escape in great detail. The book was instantly a best-seller and demonstrated Frederick's eloquent and passionate writing skill. 

Thru the profitable funds of his book Douglass was able to officially buy his freedom. However also due to the sudden publicity from his book, he was urged by other abolitionists to spend some time away in Europe. During this brief time in Ireland and England he toured with other prominent British abolitionists and was quite popular by the general public. However by 1847 he returned to his wife in Massachusetts to continue the fight against slavery. He later played a significant role in the Underground Railroad and helped nearly 400 slaves escaped with resources and safe-houses. 

By 1848 he had broken away from his partnership with William Lloyd Garrison to become his own leading social reformer. He also became a prominent supporter of the Women's Suffragette movement and at the invitation of Elizabeth Cady Stanton he spoke at their Seneca Falls Convention. In 1850 he began publishing his own newspaper of ideals, known as Frederick Douglas' Paper. He promoted freedom in the south, yet also education and desegregation in the north. He also used the publication to promote his 2nd autobiography released in 1855, My Bondage and My Freedom. However in 1859 due to his association with the radical John Brown, Frederick chose to live abroad for some time. Although he urged against Brown's slave rebellion he feared he could be tried for associating with him. 

Douglass later returned home and continued his activism during the Civil War. He encouraged black men to join the Union Army and fight for their freedom, however he also urged that President Lincoln treat the black soldiers with fair pay. The Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 was a great satisfaction for Frederick Douglas however even after the 13th amendment was passed in 1865 there was still much work to be done. He pressed for civil rights for the freed slaves and urged President Johnson and President Ulysses Grant to confront radical white supremacy such as the Ku Klux Klan. By 1870 Frederick Douglas played an influential role in the passing of the 14th and 15th amendment which granted African Americans legal protection and the right to vote. He also played a big role in the Civil Rights Act of 1871, which brought legal enforcement on the KKK and led to over 5000 arrests. 

Frederick and Anna had five children and remained married for nearly 40 years until her death in 1882. He then married a white suffragist Helen Pitts in 1884, which caused great controversy however they remained happily married for 11 years until his death. In his final years Douglass moved to Washington DC where he served on various state positions as the US Marshall, the Recorder of Deeds, and the Ambassador to Haiti. He revised his third and final autobiography the Life and Times of Frederick Douglass in 1892. He died in 1895 of a sudden heart attack at the age of 77, leaving behind an incredible legacy. He is among the greatest African American leaders in history on par with other great names such as Martin Luther King, Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth. 

Literature Study: Edgar Allan Poe

I can't remember a time that I wasn't familiar with the name, Edgar Allan Poe and his iconic poem, "The Raven". His name is synonymous with classic American literature among the greats such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Mellville, Harriet Beacher Stowe, and Emily Dickinson. Although I've always known his name, I've hardly known much about his life or his work until just recently. As I've stated many times before I tend to stray away from the horror genre, which was certainly Poe's specialty. However during this summer of Classic Literature, in search of better enlightenment, I've dove deep into my Norton Anthology of Literature and have read various works by Poe. He had a very unique and original style, and is often depicted as the father of the macabre.

As I recently wrote in my post regarding the American Literature Renaissance of the 1830s-1850s, I made the case that Edgar Allan Poe was the era's definitive figure. Prior to him, American literature was in it's earliest infancy and the works of Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper paved the way. However many critics felt these popular writers were merely copying the British literary format. It was Edgar Allen Poe who established an entirely new literary style in the 1830s. Influenced by Washington Irving and Mary Shelly (Author of Frankenstein) he specialized in the Gothic genre, that would later inspire fellow American authors, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Mellville. Furthermore his work influenced other great novelists such as Athur Conan Doyle and Fyodor Dostoevsky. 

Poe's work provided a new American identity, drawn to the Gothic horrors, mystery, psychological thrillers, and even romance. His work was no doubt influenced by the nation's dark past pertaining to the Salem Witch Trials, the bloody Revolutionary War, and even the conquest of Native Americans. His work reflects a psychological component unlike ever before. In reading his dark and twisted work, it should come as no surprise that the man himself was quite mentally unstable and lived a very short life. Just by looking at his photograph this much seems quite apparent, that he was a bit off. However just like many other great artists (Mozart, Van Gogh, Beethoven) quite often genius goes with madness, and Edgar Allen Poe most definitely had a bit both. 

The Life of Edgar Allan Poe

He was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 19th, 1809, his parents were both struggling actors. Just a year later his father abandoned him and his mother died of tuberculosis thus making him an orphan. He was later adopted by a wealthy merchant John Allan who enrolled Edgar in grammar school. They lived in London for several years before returning to Richmond, Virginia in 1820. Despite losing his biological parents, Edgar was very fortunate to be brought up and educated by a wealthy family. He excelled at language and literature and by 1826 he enrolled in the University of Virginia.  

His enrollment at the University of Virginia was quite short-lived due to his lack of discipline and rising gambling debt. During this time he developed a rift with his foster father and experienced a major heartbreak which could have caused his failure at the university. He chose not to return to his hometown of Richmond, Virginia yet rather make it on his own in Boston. He managed to find several jobs as a clerk and a newspaper writer for a year, however due to the low funds he decided to enlist in the army in 1827. It was during this year that he published his first collection of poetry known as the Tamerlane and Other Poems. 

By 1830 Edgar was appointed to West Point military academy and had received some acclaim for his published poetry by the notable critic John Neal. This encouraged Edgar to continue to pursue his writing career, however at the same time he was disowned by his foster father after years of disputes. The following year he chose to withdraw from the military by court-martial and published his 3rd collection of poems dedicated to the West Point cadets. He then moved to Baltimore to pursue a career in writing and publishing, which he quickly found to be an unending financial struggle. At this point Edgar restored to heavy alcoholism as he wrote and searched for publishers. He married his cousin, Virginia Clemm in 1835, He was 26 years old and she was only 13, yet he loved her dearly. 

From this point on Edgar achieved better financial stability and had gained some recognition for his published work. He then moved back to Richmond with his new wife and published various popular works such as the Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque. However in 1842, Poe's fortune took another downward dip when his wife got severely ill from tuberculous. This led him to heavy drinking and madness yet he still continued to write some of his greatest works at this point. He wrote poems, tales/ short-stories, essays, and literary critics. In 1845 he published "The Raven" which brought him instant fame, although not the deserved wealth. 

In 1846 he moved to New York City and his wife Virginia finally gave in to her tuberculous sickness and died the following year. This drove Edgar into an even further alcoholism, strange behavior, and downright insanity. This lifestyle eventually got the better of him in October of 1849 when he was found in a drunken stupor on the streets of Baltimore and died several days later due to a brain hemorrhage. His death was a very mysterious one however and just like the character himself is shrouded with theories pertaining to suicide, illness, or murder as a victim of election fraud. Following his death he became the victim of a terrible character assassination by Rufus Griswold, one of his former publishers. It was not until 30 years later that Poe received the proper recognition and honor that was due of him. 

Upon reflecting on his downtrodden life it is no wonder he developed an eccentric behavior that gave way to madness. As an orphan he perhaps never felt fully loved by his foster parents, and experienced many episodes of disappointment and heartbreak. Yet despite this unusual upbringing, he was quite fortunate to be brought up in a wealthy environment that no doubt encouraged his passion for academics, specifically literature. Poe displayed great tenacity in his penmanship and ambition to be published. It should also be noted that before he truly went insane, he experienced some relatively satisfying years with his wife, Virginia. However as soon as she became sick, his life went on a sharp downward trajectory to eventual madness. All of Poe's brilliant yet disturbing work is reflective of this life of heartbreak, depression, alcoholism, and frequent psychological trauma. 

The Famous Works of Poe

• Tamerlane and Other Poems (1827)
• This was Poe's first published work, a collection of poetry inspired by the work of British poet, Lord Byron. He wrote the poems as a soldier in the army and they quickly garnished appraise from notable critics such as John Neal. He demonstrated his common themes of death, love, and pride in famous poems such as "Tamerlane", "Evening Star", "The Lake", "Song", "Spirits of the Dead", and "The Happiest Day".
• Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems (1829)
• This was his second publication as a soldier in the army, and dedicated to his literary critic John Neal. The collection was most renown for it's long complex poem of "Al Aaraaf", which pertained to an Islamic Purgatory full of allegory. This collection was not as warmly received as his first collection, yet still showed his creative potential. 
• Poems by Edgar Allen Poe (1831)
• His third publication inspired him to leave his military career and begin a full time life as a writer. While this lifestyle lead to financial struggle it also allowed him to dedicate more time to his writing. His third publication included famous poems such as "To Helen", "The City in the Sea", and "Israfel" (yet another homage to death, love, and Islamic lore). 
• Ligeia (1838)

• By 1832 Edgar Allen Poe had expanded from poetry to also writing short-stories pertaining to humor, mystery, and horror. The tale of Ligeia demonstrated his romantic element which is often lost in his dark themes. The narrator is obsessed with the raven-haired beautiful and wise woman named Ligeia. However she later dies and the narrator marries another woman without as much love, Rowena. His 2nd wife also dies and upon her death mysteriously transforms into the body of Ligeia. One analysis here could be that the spirit of Ligeia consumed the body of Rowena to return to life. This is an example of Poe's romantic and metaphysical style.  
• The Fall of the House of Usher (1839)
• One of his more famous short-tales which demonstrated his unique metaphysical and Gothic style. In the story the narrator visits a haunted house and finds the owner to be in a perplexing state. He later discovers that the owner of the house has entombed his sister which explains the mysterious sounds and his eccentric behavior. The sister later escapes her tomb and kills her brother. As the narrator flees from the site, he witnesses the house split into two, thus representing the end of the house and the family. Just as the title suggests this is an end of a family dynasty, quite literally, and Poe creates a very psychological and metaphysical account here. 
• William Wilson (1839)

• This tale appeared in Poe's publication of Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque. It is a horror tale of a man who is haunted by his doppelganger. He later murders his look-alike, but is then haunted by the image in his mirror. This is yet another example of Poe's psychological writing, taking the reader into the mind of a very troubled person. 
• The Man in the Crowd (1840)
• Yet another psychological story pertaining to an obsessive people-watcher in the streets of London. The narrator is clearly an odd character who enjoys to observe people, yet when he sees an unusual old man in the streets he becomes mad with curiosity. He follows the man thru the streets and markets of London for an entire day and later concludes that the man is simply one of mystery who thrives in crowds. The ultimate question Poe presents in this tale is who is the stranger, the narrator or the mysterious old man in the crowd. 
• The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841)
• Regarded as the first detective story, yet another claim to Poe's legendary author status. The main character of C. Auguste Dupin is a detective in Paris who is solving a murder thru rationale and reasoning. Dupin's unique methods allow him to analyze the murder from the perspective of the suspect. This original character created by Poe, later returned in his other detective stories of "The Mystery of Marie Roget" and "The Purloined Letter". These stories went on to inspire other detective/mystery writers, most notably the creator of Sherlock Holmes, Arthur Conan Doyle.  
• The Masque of the Red Death (1842)

• Another of Poe's great horror tales that excels in the development of psychological fear. The story takes place in a castle amidst a deadly plague known as the Red Death. Bold and fearless, Prince Prospero considers his castle a safe refuge and holds a masquerade for his fellow nobles. However despite the luxurious affair, fear is still evident with the silence after the chiming of the clock. At midnight the people at the party notice a peculiar dark figure in a shroud and the mask of a corpse. Prospero corners the figure with his dagger, demanding to know his identity. The figure then reveals his mask, in which there is nothing but death for everyone at the party.   
• The Pit and the Pendulum (1842)
• Here is another psychological horror from the perspective of a tortured prisoner during the Spanish Inquisition. The narrator is trapped in a cell and watches as a sharp pendulum swings back and forth lowering to his position. He is able to escape his bondage thanks to the rats of the cell, however once again faces death as the walls begin to close on one another. The narrator is miraculously saved at the end by the arrival of the French Army.  
• The Tell-Tale Heart (1843)

• Regarded as one of Poe's most famous short stories, this is another demonstration of his Gothic psychological thrillers. The narrator lives with an old man (the connection not made clear) that has a wicked vulture-eye. This eye begins to haunt and drive the narrator mad, to the point in which he murders the old man and buries him under the floor of the house. However overcome by guilt and paranoia he begins to hear sounds and thumping throughout the house which he believes to be the heart of the old man. During the police investigation of the murder, the narrator falls into a mad panic unable to block out the noise, and confesses to his crime. 
• The Gold-Bug (1843)
• Yet another of Poe's famous detective/adventure stories, it also demonstrates his keen fascination for cryptography. The story revolves around William Legrand who partakes in a treasure hunt of deciphering clues and code. Thru the help of the narrator and his servant he is able to discover the treasure of famous pirate Captain Kidd. The story was one of Poe's most popular works and also his most profitable. This story went on to influence Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island as well as Dan Brown's various "Robert Langdon" mystery novels pertaining to code-breaking.  
• The Black Cat (1843)
  
• This short tale was another of Poe's most iconic works and perhaps one of my favorites. It incorporates common themes of psychological guilt, panic, and total collapse. The story is quite similar to Tell-Tale Heart in which the narrator finds himself quite haunted by someone, this time a black cat that is missing an eye. He eventually gives in to this disturbance and hangs the cat however quite mysteriously that night his house catches fire. Overcome by guilt he later buys another similar black cat, that is also missing an eye. Yet again however he is overcome by the haunting demeanor of the cat and begins to avoid it. In a fury one night he attempts to kill it with an ax, yet when his wife stops him he kills her wife the ax. Shocked by his abrupt murder he conceals the corpse of his wife in the walls and is unable to find the cat. He finds peace however in that the cat has gone missing and has fled the property. Later however the police show up to his house to investigate the murder, of which the narrator is confident they will not find her. However in a fateful twist of fortune, the missing cat gives a loud shriek revealing the hidden location of his wife's dead corpse.     
• The Raven (1845)
  
• No doubt this is Poe's most well-known work, a poem yet again pertaining to psychological madness. The narrator is grieving in his room over the loss of his beloved Lenore. Unable to sleep, he seeks some solace by reading old books, however later hears a tapping at his window. As the narrator opens the window, a black raven flies inside the room and lands above his door, speaking only the word "Nevermore". At first the narrator is amused by this bird and begins to speak with it, then later presumes the bird will fly away from his life just as everyone else had, to which the bird responds, "Nevermore". The narrator then grows deeper with the bird and questions it whether he can forget Lenore or if he will be united with her in heaven, to which yet again the bird utters "Nevermore". At this the narrator is driven into a mad fury accusing the bird of being an evil prophet from hell, of which he must spend the rest of his days haunted by. The brilliance of this poem is shared by the haunting scene Poe creates, yet more so it's rhyme and rhythm. 
• The Cask of Amontillado (1846)
• Perhaps one of Poe's most twisted and cruel stories it tells of a man's quest for vengeance on a person who has insulted him. At a wine-tasting party the narrator Montresor leads his old friend, Fortunato into an underground wine cellar. Montresor convinces his enthusiastic friend that beneath the cave is a rare vintage of Amontillado. However he then quickly chains Fortunato in the cellar and begins to slowly entomb him, until he is fully enclosed. This is one of several depictions by Poe of a character being buried alive, which clearly fascinated or haunted the author. Unlike other stories however such as The Fall of the House of Usher, Black Cat, or Tell-Tale Heart, the murderer felt his actions were justified and is not haunted by his deed. 
• Annabel Lee (1848)
• This was one of Poe's last great works, a romantic poem yet again about the loss of a beautiful woman. Just like in Ligeia, The Raven, or Ulalume the narrator is grieving over the loss of a woman he once loved. He describes how they shared a strong love during their youth by the sea, a love that was so strong that even the angels grew jealous. The narrator is convinced the angels killed her beloved Annabel Lee, however even in death their love shines stronger than ever. He lies by her tomb each night and sees her eyes in the stars of the sky. It is believed Poe wrote this poem for his deceased wife, Virginia Clemm, whom he loved dearly. Despite it's grim matter it ends with an uplifting note, and demonstrates Poe's romantic quality which was almost equally as powerful as his horrific quality. 

Urban Study: Washington DC

I decided about half way thru reading Dan Brown's book, The Lost Symbol that I wanted to make a deep study on the city of Washington DC. Our nation's capital is full of so much great history and architecture, it is truly a city of wonders. Perhaps often overlooked as the seat of government, it is arguably one of America's most cultural cities (loaded with memorials, monuments, museums, art, statues, fountains and so forth). It was built in the likes of classical Rome and Greece and embodies a city from an entirely different age. Just as I did with my Study on Paris and New York City, I'd like to get a better understanding of the city's development. Furthermore I'd like to highlight the key monuments of the city. Therefore this is a historical study and more so an architectural study (free of any Freemason conspiracy).

I've been to Washington DC twice in my life and really wanted to make another recent trip however that will have to wait till later. I first went in 8th grade on a field trip with our class, but in those days I was much more into girls than appreciating the historical sites. Then in the year 2000, we went on a family summer vacation and got to enjoy the city a lot more. We saw all the classic sites that I had first seen few years earlier. Aside from the impressive sites, I also remember even then being impressed with the diversity in the city. The highlight of that trip was no doubt watching the 4th of July fireworks on the steps of the US Capitol while it poured rain. That trip was very memorable, but still I did not appreciate history as I do today.

For me, now that I have turned the page on the American Revolution, the foundation of this city is more interesting than ever. It's quite surprising that the new nation did not choose it's already well established cities such as Philadelphia or New York City as their federal capitals. Instead in the Compromise of 1790 the US government decided to build a new federal capital off the Potomac River between the states of Maryland and Virginia. This new Federal district was to be named after the great hero and 1st president of the nation, George Washington. Also the city of Washington became it's own separate state, known as the federal district of Colombia (A homage to the discoverer of America). It is a classical city, a white city, and a very iconic city full of so much history, art, and mystery.

History- Compromise of 1790

It was actually from watching the musical Hamilton that I learned of the very interesting Compromise of 1790. It was essentially a political deal between the founding fathers, Federalist Alexander Hamilton and the Democratic-Republicans Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. In order for Hamilton to establish his federal bank and pay the war debts, he compromised with the Virginians (Jefferson and Madison) to establish the new nation's capital in the south. The new location was designated in the Residence Act of 1790 along the Potomac River at Virginia's northernmost point, and Maryland's southernmost point (very close to Washington's house in Mount Vernon).

Considering the nation's capital had operated out of Philadelphia and New York City since it's first declaration back in 1775, it seemed they were the obvious choice for a new federal capital. What's even more interesting is despite the signing of the Residence Act in 1790, the government still operated in New York and Philadelphia for another ten years while the new district was built. President Washington began his presidency at City Hall in New York from 1789 to 1790. He then relocated to Congress Hall in Philadelphia which became the nation's capital until 1800. Washington therefore never got to sit as president in the newly built capital of DC. It was the 2nd president, John Adam's who became the 1st president to reside in the newly established White House of Washington DC.

The Construction of DC

It was the French-American engineer, Pierre Charles L'Enfant who was appointed by President Washington to construct the new capital. It should be noted here that L'Enfant served with General Washington at Valley Forge and was a fellow Freemason member. Together they shared a similar vision that the city was to represent one of enlightenment, in accordance with their Freemason beliefs. It was to be modeled after the classical structures of Greece and Rome, thus demonstrating America's new found liberty and democracy.

L'Enfant's Plan first consisted of two main structures to be built north of the Potomac River, the US Capitol and the White House. The US Capitol was built on a hill at the end of an avenue that later became known as the National Mall. A diagonal rode known as Pennsylvania Avenue connected the Capitol to the newly built President's House. L'Enfant first intended for the White House to be a great palace however the scale was eventually reduced. Aside from these two main buildings L'Enfant also oversaw a grid of streets, canals, parks, and other city buildings. His plan was also revised by a prominent land surveyor who also later played a role in the layout of the city.

Burning in War of 1812

During the Adams and Jefferson administration the city continued to further develop it's foundation as well as it's economy. However during the War of 1812 it underwent a major setback. The city was invaded by British forces after the American defeat at the Battle of Bladensburg in 1814. On August 24th, 1814 the British army entered the city and set fire to many of it's iconic buildings such as the US Capitol and the White House. President James Madison fled to the town of Brookeville, Maryland and took refuge with a Quaker family for a day.

Quite miraculously after the city was set ablaze a major hurricane struck the Atlantic Shore and brought a thunderous shower upon the besieged city. The rainstorm not only put out the fires but brought heavy damage to the British artillery and ships, causing them to evacuate just days after their invasion. The president and Congress were able to return a few weeks later and begin reconstruction on the city. The War of 1812 eventually came to a cease-fire that winter in Feb of 1815. This invasion of DC marked the only time the city was occupied by a foreign power. The hurricane proved as the ultimate symbol to many that God was surely on the side of America.

Civil War Retrocession

Following the War of 1812 there was a movement within Congress to return the capital back to Philadelphia however the vote just barely upheld DC. During the Era of Good Feelings, the city continued to grow as a center of political appeal. By 1835 the first major railroad had been built in the city, connecting it to Baltimore and furthering business. However also during this time there was a petition among the Alexandria residents to withdraw from the federal district and return to Virginia jurisdiction. This motion was eventually granted in 1847, reducing DC's territory south of the Potomac river. 

In the 1840s new developments in the city included the Smithsonian Institution, a branch of museums. In 1848 Congress approved the construction of a major monument to be built in the city to honor their iconic hero Washington. The design was led by Robert Mills as a giant obelisk that would stand in the midst of the National Mall. However the project hit several pauses due to a lack of funding as well as the outbreak of the Civil War. It did not resume construction until 1879 and was finally completed by 1889. The monument stood at a resounding 555 feet tall, and was the tallest structure in the world for 5 years until it was surpassed by the Eiffel Tower. The monument to this day remains the largest building in the capital city.

During the Civil War, president Lincoln established the Army of the Potomac to defend the capital city. It was at Washington DC where the Union Army established a well organized administrative and logistical operation to defeat the Confederates. The only notable attack of the city came at the Battle of Fort Stevens in July of 1864, where the Union was able to repel the Confederates. With the onset of the Emancipation Proclamation as well as the 13th amendment, the city became a popular destination among freed African slaves. However the city also sadly witnessed the assassination of President Lincoln at Ford Theater on April 14th, 1865.

Modern day expansion

In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant pushed for the Organic Act to modernize the city with new roads and building improvements. By 1895 the city expanded it's jurisdiction further west, swallowing up the region of Georgetown renown for it's private university. In the early 1900s urban beautification gained popular traction, and Senator James McMillan presented a new layout to the city. His plan became the blueprint to the present day format of the National Mall. This included the construction of a major train station, known as Union Station finished in 1908. Furthermore there was the iconic Lincoln Memorial which was completed on the western end of the National Mall in 1922.

In 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, another prominent Freemason, commissioned various other monuments in DC. The most notable of these new monuments was the neoclassical Jefferson Memorial completed in 1943 on the south end of the National Mall in the Tidal Basin. The building was built in the Roman style of the Pantheon, reminiscent of other major classical buildings in the city. It also established a distinctive cross of monuments in the National Mall consisting of the US Capitol, the White House, the Lincoln Memorial, the Jefferson Memorial, and the Washington Monument in the middle.

The city experienced a major growth spurt during the Great Depression and World War II, due to heightened needs for new federal agencies. It also later became the epicenter of the Civil Rights Movement in 1963, in which Dr. Marin Luther King gave his famous "I Have a Dream" speech at the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. The city also became the site of many Vietnam protests and the counterculture movement of the 1960s-1970s. The city continued to expand it's Arlington Cemetery with an iconic memorial to WWI, WW2, and Vietnam veterans, an eternal flame honoring JFK, and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier.  Later memorials were built in 1997 to Franklin D. Roosevelt and 2011 to Martin Luther King Jr. The city to this day remains a booming center of trade and culture, with countless architectural monuments.

Washington DC's Urban Culture

One thing that makes the United States quite different than other nations is that it is made up of a vast array of sub-cultures. Part of this is obviously due to the fact that it's one of the largest nations in the world by territory alone. Another reason however is because it is a nation made up of many different immigrants and thus it has a diverse culture among it's various regions. Urban culture is a defining feature of our nation's greater culture, and has a vast difference from east to west, south to north. Just like New York City, Boston, and New Orleans have their distinctive cultures so does Washington DC.

It is a city no doubt influenced by the business and administration of the federal government. It is also however very catered to the business of tourism, as it hosts many of the nation's most iconic monuments and museums. Aside from the government and tourism, the city has a booming media presence, being the heart of much of American news. And a city cannot be considered a proper city, unless it has several professional sports team. Washington has a sports team in every major league, consisting of the Washington Nationals (MLB), Washington Wizards (NBA), Washington Capitals (NHL), DC United (MLS), and the Washington Football Team (formerly the Redskins; NFL). 

Architecture- Key Landmarks of the City

Now this is the favorite part of my Urban Study, and a big part of the reason I love to travel; to see the landmarks of the city. As a major history enthusiast, I see so much in an ancient block of stone, sculpture, or tower. I see great craftsmanship, impeccable detail, labor, and construction. Yet further more I see time and a symbol representing something great that occurred in the history of mankind. Whether it's an Obelisk Monument or a Dome Shaped building, these buildings are so much more than their physical structure. They are iconic symbols of our nation's history and culture.

• US Capitol

• Construction: 1793-1800
• Purpose: Meeting place of US Congress 
• Significance: It is my favorite building in Washington DC (number #7 on my favorite modern wonders; see Top Ten Modern Wonders). It is built in the Roman neoclassical fashion with it's iconic white dome, pillars, 365 steps, and statue of lady liberty at its top. Inside the building is just as impressive with it's massive rotunda, and gallery of art consisting of The Apotheosis of Washington and the Signing of The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. 
• Library of Congress
• Construction: 1800
• Purpose: Federal Cultural Institution 
• Significance: It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States. Furthermore it is the largest library in the world and consists of 38 million books. The library was intended as the library of Congress but was later opened to the general public in 1897. 
• White House

• Construction: 1792-1800
• Purpose: Executive Home of the President
• Significance: This is the iconic residence of the president, renown for it's white pillars, fountains, and green lawn. The mansion has undergone various expansions throughout the years, with additional portico and wings. Inside, the oval office became the center of executive operations in which the president oversaw his cabinet and federal administration. While many presidents have resided in the location, the term "House" is more figurative and normally it serves more as an office than an actual home. 
• Washington Monument

• Construction: 1848-1884
• Purpose: Memorial to George Washington
• Significance: It is the most iconic monument in Washington DC and perhaps the entire nation. While it appears as a simple obelisk it's grandiose scale makes it truly the most remarkable site in DC. It stands as the tallest structure in DC (at 555 feet), and for several years it was the tallest building in the world. It also has a stairway and elevator inside the tower, which give citizens a very impressive viewpoint of the city at it's top. 
• Smithsonian Institution
• Construction: 1849-1855
• Purpose: Branch of Museums and research centers
• Significance: It was originally organized as the national museum of the United States and quickly expanded to a collection of many sub-branches of history, science, and art. Most of the museums are spread across the eastern side of the National Mall between the Washington Monument and the US Capitol. These include the National Air and Space Museum, History Museum, Natural History Museum, American Art Gallery, and a National Zoological Park to name a few. Whats even more intriguing about the Smithsonian Institution is the massive archival collection stored underground away from the public's view. 
• Arlington National Cemetery
• Construction: 1864
• Purpose: Houses the dead of the nation's conflicts
• Significance: Located at the once estate of General Robert E. Lee, it was first established as the burial grounds of those who died in the Civil War. It later expanded to include soldiers who had fallen in other American military conflicts such as the World Wars, Korean War, and Vietnam War. The Cemetery also houses various iconic memorials including the JFK Memorial and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. The white headstones of the cemetery are arranged in a very organized pattern, displaying the unity of the American military. 
• Lincoln Memorial

• Construction: 1914-1922
• Purpose: Memorial to Abraham Lincoln
• Significance: Built in the Greek Revival style, this memorial building has become one of the most iconic buildings in Washington DC. With it's white pillars, it is reminiscent of the ancient Parthenon in Athens and very on par with the classical architecture of DC. Furthermore the building houses one of the greatest sculptures in America, of president Abraham Lincoln. I included it as #5 on my list of greatest statues (Top Ten Monumental Statues) This colossal statue depicts the president seated on a throne of marble. In front of the building there is a long pool in the National Mall known as the Lincoln Reflecting Pool. 
• Supreme Court Building
• Construction: 1932-1935
• Purpose: House of the Supreme Court 
• Significance: Yet another Romanesque building of marble pillars and statues, it houses the 9 judges of the Supreme Court. Prior to this construction, the federal judges operated in the chambers of the US Capitol. However since the Judicial Branch was to be separate from the Legislative Branch, this building was thus commissioned in 1932. 
• Jefferson Memorial
• Construction: 1939-1943
  
• Purpose: Memorial to Thomas Jefferson
• Significance: Yet another very iconic memorial in DC built in the neoclassical style. It was commissioned by President FDR to honor our 3rd president and author of the Declaration of Independence. The building stands on the shore of the Potomac River at the southern point of the National Mall. It is a homage to the Pantheon of Rome, with it's round dome and white pillars. Inside there is a statue of Thomas Jefferson standing with the words of the Declaration of Independence inscribed on the wall.  
• Vietnam Memorial
• Construction: 1982
  
• Purpose: Memorial for the fallen soldiers of the Vietnam War
• Significance: On the west side of the National Mall near the Lincoln Memorial, this Memorial is a wall dedicated to the fallen soldiers of the Vietnam War. It consists the names of the nearly 60,000 soldiers who were killed in this war. It also has two iconic status of the Three Soldiers and the Women's Memorial. 
• FDR Memorial
• Construction: 1997
• Purpose: Memorial to Franklin Delano Roosvelt
• Significance: In the Tidal Basin aside the Thomas Jefferson memorial, this memorial honors the 32nd president of the US. The site consists of a collection of stones, statues, and a waterfall depicting the president's life with famous quotes. Quite frankly compared to the other surrounding memorials in the National Mall, this one is rather lackluster.  
• WWII Memorial
• Construction: 2004
• Purpose: Memorial for the fallen soldiers of WWII
• Significance: In the midst of the National Mall, between the Lincoln Memorial and the Washington Monument, this memorial is dedicated to those who served and fell in WWII. The memorial consists of a rainbow fountain and 56 pillars that represents the states and territories of the US. 
• MLK Memorial

• Construction: 2011
• Purpose: Memorial to Martin Luther King Jr
• Significance: It stands at the west point of the Tidal Basin, a colossal white statue of Martin Luther King near the Lincoln Memorial. The statue is a homage to MLK's "I Have a Dream" speech which he gave in front of the Lincoln Memorial in 1963. The statue is also referred to as the "Stone of Hope" and was commissioned by President Obama to honor this iconic African American leader.