During my recent full immersion into the Colonial Age, I have noticed a subtle backdrop element of witchcraft. It seems during this new birth of Protestant purity, came a reactive component of superstitious paganism. There's no doubt that the practice of witchcraft goes far beyond the Colonial Age, however it certainty reached a height of hysteria during the 1600-1700s. In this post I'd like to make a general study on witchcraft during the Colonial Age (with an emphasis on Christian accusations). I'd like to better understand the accused practices of witchcraft as well as the most infamous trials of the period.
As a devout Catholic I tend to stray away from anything related to horror or the dark arts. However I cannot deny my fascination with this topic as a scholarly enthusiast of history. There's also an element of fantasy to it, which I have always enjoyed in popular literature such as The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Lord of the Rings, Chronicles of Narnia, and the Harry Potter series. The idea of witches today have a light-toned perception to them, often associated with the spooky elements of Halloween. In a way our popular culture has embraced the frowned upon witches just as they have with pirates.
Nonetheless it wasn't always this way and for most of history the mere idea of witchcraft, was the tool of the devil and the enemy of the church. To engage in any superstitious practice that was not associated to the Christian church was considered a blasphemous injustice. While the Catholics were no doubt guilty of these religious persecutions long before the Protestant Reformation, the practice of witch-hunting reached it's pinnacle during the European Wars of Religion. It was during this period of the Counter Reformation (1580-1630) that nearly 50,000 witches were killed.
As I have recently read various books pertaining to the Colonial Age and specifically the Salem Witch Trials of 1692, I am often left with one simple question; did people actually practice witchcraft in those days or was it all the result of religious hysteria. It's my belief in the latter, that that these hunts were more so conducted by fanatical purification rather than any hard proof against the accused. To put it simply in the days of Puritan "righteousness" to be different from the norm could result in harsh accusations. However with that said I do believe there were those who engaged in the unorthodox superstitious practice of witchcraft. It just seems quite rational for their to be naysayers and cults of witchcraft as an offshoot to Puritan extremism.
The Accused Practices of Witchcraft
Once again I don't intend to dive too deep into this dark topic, but would just like to get a general understanding of what constituted as a witch. There is really no hard evidence that a secret society of witches and devil-worshipers ever existed in those days. It seems much more likely that each witch who ever confessed was an isolated event not connected to some well organized cult. Furthermore while most were unusual characters, none could engage in any real supernatural magic only superstitious practices. However of course there are theories and conspiracies which is probably what makes this topic so intriguing.
The first major source of the study of witchcraft was Malleus Maleficarum (Hammer of the Witches) by Heinrich Kramer in 1486. The German Catholic clergyman conducted a detailed inquest into the dark art and ultimately encouraged the total extermination of this practice by any means necessary. He defined several characteristics of witchcraft pertaining to dealings with the devil and the practice of wicked magic. The book was a major source of information during the heightened witch trials of the Counter Reformation. The belief of a witch-cult reached new popularity in the early 1900s thanks to various publications on the topic from renown historian, Margeret Muller. The general theory was that the witch-cult served as a Pagan religion long before Christianity and partook in dark rituals.
The hypothesis of there being a pagan religion of witchcraft during the Colonial Days seems far-fetched and mostly disproved. However the practice of witchcraft in it's broader sense was still very prevalent in those days. What began to occur in the mid 1500s, most likely as a result of the Malleus Maleficarum as well as the Protestant Reformation, was not so much a new growth of witchcraft yet a much stricter purging of witchcraft. It was ultimately the trials that brought new attention to this dark art that had been practiced for a millennium. In these trials the authorities used various accusations to determine a witch.
Once again none of these practices were anything supernatural yet more so a frowned upon way-of-life. The witch trials were mostly conducted thru accusations and the ridiculous tool of spectral evidence. Thru this use of spectral evidence an accuser would share his bewitched experience with the court in which he was haunted, bitten, or pinched in a dream or a vision. Without any hard evidence, the court could use the accuser's word-of-mouth claim, to try and hang a witch. This was not only poor legal practice yet also very poor Christian practice in an age of "righteousness".
Other tools and tests the court officials used to determine a witch were severe questioning, by which the magistrate would entirely intimidate and lead the witch into a confession. Then there was the touch test, where if an afflicted person would touch the accused and were suddenly healed it was because that person was the one who afflicted them. Another belief was the "witch's teat", a supposed blemish or wart on the person's body that represented a bite from the devil. These were all very idiotic tests, and even the confessions were mostly done-so out of fear of being hanged.
The Infamous Trials of Witch-craft
All throughout history there have been isolated events of witch-hunts, trials, and executions. This practice of total panic and paranoia goes as far back as the days of Ancient Egypt, China, and Greece. During the Medieval Age, the Catholic church led a series of inquisitions against witches, yet their primary target were heretics and enemies of the church. It was not until the 1500s that communities began a widespread purging of witchcraft. This sudden influx was the result of many factors born from the Renaissance, such as a rise in the occultism as well as the Protestant Reformation. Henrich Kramer's publication in 1486 became the new manual and the rallying cry to exterminate all witches.
Of course there were many isolated accounts through this period targeted at one witch at a time. The witch was often accused and eradicated by an angry mob, trial, or execution. However below I would like to list the most infamous trials conducted on a communal grand-scale. In these instances mentioned below it was not just an isolated case of witchcraft, yet more so an epidemic that had plagued a town or region. Some of the greatest number of accusations and casualties occurred in Germany and Scotland. Also of note that while women made up the majority 80% of accusations, men, animals, and even werewolves were accused.
By 1750 the practice of witch-hunting and trials had begun to decline throughout Europe and America. By this point witchcraft was no longer considered a criminal offense. This was most likely due to the fact of the countless accusers and officials who later recanted their accusations as ill-advised and simply incorrect. In 1735 Great Britain passed a new law which prohibited anyone from accusing someone of witchcraft. This act demonstrated the widespread realization that witch-hunting was no more than a paranoid hysteria.
I suppose in defense of the legal proceedings, the witch trials were not so much about proving supernatural powers yet more were against the worship of the devil. To this day the practice of black arts and satanic worship are still very frowned upon however the trials of old have long pasted. On the flip side of the dark arts there is also the practice of white magic, a form of healing and folk religion. These good witches would probably have been tried and hanged all the same as the bad witches back in the colonial days, however today they openly practice their beliefs. The religion of Wicca was established in the 1920s and today remains as the most populated Pagan religion.
Popular Culture pertaining to Witches
Although I know I have only scratched at the surface of this topic with a brief focus on the colonial age, I'd like to also consider this post as a cultural study. As I mentioned above the idea of witches has captured the fascination of many writers in modern history. Today it is embedded in most societies as an iconic character of popular culture. The common witch is usually depicted as an old hag, with a big nose, a black hat, riding on a broom stick, and accompanied by cats. Next to pumpkins, witches are probably the most distinctive element of Halloween. They are commonly associated with spookiness yet more-so in a light-tone satirical sense.
Just like with pirates, witches are often represented as the archetype villain in a fantasy. For me the Wicked Witch of the West from the Wizard of Oz was probably my first experience of witches and to this day I think she is the most definitive image of a witch. However also just like with pirates there are good witches as demonstrated in other forms of literature and movies. It was quite recently that the author JK Rowling brought a whole new perspective to witchcraft with her popular books of Harry Potter. Here she expanded on the fictional world of witchcraft by adding more wizards and a school for the magically gifted. This series was mostly a light-toned fantasy, however it did get a bit darker and more intense in the later novels.
Below is a list of what I consider some of the most iconic representations of witches in books, TV, and movies. I'm sure I'll be missing some on this list however these are the main ones for me that come to mind. Also as mentioned many times before I am not a fan of horror films and realize that witches are probably a common character in those productions.
As a devout Catholic I tend to stray away from anything related to horror or the dark arts. However I cannot deny my fascination with this topic as a scholarly enthusiast of history. There's also an element of fantasy to it, which I have always enjoyed in popular literature such as The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Lord of the Rings, Chronicles of Narnia, and the Harry Potter series. The idea of witches today have a light-toned perception to them, often associated with the spooky elements of Halloween. In a way our popular culture has embraced the frowned upon witches just as they have with pirates.Nonetheless it wasn't always this way and for most of history the mere idea of witchcraft, was the tool of the devil and the enemy of the church. To engage in any superstitious practice that was not associated to the Christian church was considered a blasphemous injustice. While the Catholics were no doubt guilty of these religious persecutions long before the Protestant Reformation, the practice of witch-hunting reached it's pinnacle during the European Wars of Religion. It was during this period of the Counter Reformation (1580-1630) that nearly 50,000 witches were killed.
As I have recently read various books pertaining to the Colonial Age and specifically the Salem Witch Trials of 1692, I am often left with one simple question; did people actually practice witchcraft in those days or was it all the result of religious hysteria. It's my belief in the latter, that that these hunts were more so conducted by fanatical purification rather than any hard proof against the accused. To put it simply in the days of Puritan "righteousness" to be different from the norm could result in harsh accusations. However with that said I do believe there were those who engaged in the unorthodox superstitious practice of witchcraft. It just seems quite rational for their to be naysayers and cults of witchcraft as an offshoot to Puritan extremism.
The Accused Practices of Witchcraft
Once again I don't intend to dive too deep into this dark topic, but would just like to get a general understanding of what constituted as a witch. There is really no hard evidence that a secret society of witches and devil-worshipers ever existed in those days. It seems much more likely that each witch who ever confessed was an isolated event not connected to some well organized cult. Furthermore while most were unusual characters, none could engage in any real supernatural magic only superstitious practices. However of course there are theories and conspiracies which is probably what makes this topic so intriguing.
The first major source of the study of witchcraft was Malleus Maleficarum (Hammer of the Witches) by Heinrich Kramer in 1486. The German Catholic clergyman conducted a detailed inquest into the dark art and ultimately encouraged the total extermination of this practice by any means necessary. He defined several characteristics of witchcraft pertaining to dealings with the devil and the practice of wicked magic. The book was a major source of information during the heightened witch trials of the Counter Reformation. The belief of a witch-cult reached new popularity in the early 1900s thanks to various publications on the topic from renown historian, Margeret Muller. The general theory was that the witch-cult served as a Pagan religion long before Christianity and partook in dark rituals.The hypothesis of there being a pagan religion of witchcraft during the Colonial Days seems far-fetched and mostly disproved. However the practice of witchcraft in it's broader sense was still very prevalent in those days. What began to occur in the mid 1500s, most likely as a result of the Malleus Maleficarum as well as the Protestant Reformation, was not so much a new growth of witchcraft yet a much stricter purging of witchcraft. It was ultimately the trials that brought new attention to this dark art that had been practiced for a millennium. In these trials the authorities used various accusations to determine a witch.
- Spell-casting: Purely a superstitious practice that often was engaged thru the incantation of words, ritualistic dances, symbols, herbs, potions, or poppet dolls.
- Occultism: Belief in the supernatural study of astronomy, alchemy, astrology, palm reading, and magic
- Secularization: Isolated, non-conformist, and non-religious values
- Demonology: The study of demons and worship of the devil
- Necromancy: To rise dead spirits from the dead
Once again none of these practices were anything supernatural yet more so a frowned upon way-of-life. The witch trials were mostly conducted thru accusations and the ridiculous tool of spectral evidence. Thru this use of spectral evidence an accuser would share his bewitched experience with the court in which he was haunted, bitten, or pinched in a dream or a vision. Without any hard evidence, the court could use the accuser's word-of-mouth claim, to try and hang a witch. This was not only poor legal practice yet also very poor Christian practice in an age of "righteousness".
Other tools and tests the court officials used to determine a witch were severe questioning, by which the magistrate would entirely intimidate and lead the witch into a confession. Then there was the touch test, where if an afflicted person would touch the accused and were suddenly healed it was because that person was the one who afflicted them. Another belief was the "witch's teat", a supposed blemish or wart on the person's body that represented a bite from the devil. These were all very idiotic tests, and even the confessions were mostly done-so out of fear of being hanged.
The Infamous Trials of Witch-craft
All throughout history there have been isolated events of witch-hunts, trials, and executions. This practice of total panic and paranoia goes as far back as the days of Ancient Egypt, China, and Greece. During the Medieval Age, the Catholic church led a series of inquisitions against witches, yet their primary target were heretics and enemies of the church. It was not until the 1500s that communities began a widespread purging of witchcraft. This sudden influx was the result of many factors born from the Renaissance, such as a rise in the occultism as well as the Protestant Reformation. Henrich Kramer's publication in 1486 became the new manual and the rallying cry to exterminate all witches.Of course there were many isolated accounts through this period targeted at one witch at a time. The witch was often accused and eradicated by an angry mob, trial, or execution. However below I would like to list the most infamous trials conducted on a communal grand-scale. In these instances mentioned below it was not just an isolated case of witchcraft, yet more so an epidemic that had plagued a town or region. Some of the greatest number of accusations and casualties occurred in Germany and Scotland. Also of note that while women made up the majority 80% of accusations, men, animals, and even werewolves were accused.
- Lisbon Witch Trials (1559-1560)
- Occurred in Lisbon, Portugal
- est 35 accusations, 7 executions
- Wiesensteig Witch Trials (1562-1563)
- Occurred in Wiesensteig, Germany
- 67 executions
- Trier Witch Trials (1581-1593)
- Occurred in Trier, Germany
- est 1000 executions
- North Berwick Witch Trials (1590)
- East Lothian, Scotland
- est 70-100 executions
- Great Scottish Witch Hunt (1597)
- Occurred in Scotland
- est 400 tried; 200 executions
- Fulda Witch Trials (1603-1606)
- Occured in Fulda, Germany
- est 250 executions
- Koge Huskors Trials (1608-1615)
- Occurred in Koge, Denmark
- est 15-20 executions
- Basque Witch Trials (1609-1611)
- Occurred in Navarre, Spain
- est 7000 accusations, est 100 executions
- Ellwangen Witch Trials (1611-1618)
- Occurred in Ellwangen, Germany
- est 450 executions
- Pendle Witch Trial (1612)
- Occurred in Lancashire, England
- 12 accused; 10 executions
- Northamptonshire Witch Trials (1612)
- Occurred in Northampton, England
- 5 executions
- Eichstatt Witch Trials (1613-1630)
- Occurred in Eichstatt, Germany
- est 224 executions
- Roermond Witch Trials (1613)
- Occurred in Roermond, Netherlands
- est 64 executions
- Spa Witch Trials (1616)
- Occurred in Spa, Belgium
- est 14 executions
- Vardo Witch Trials (1621)
- Occurred in Northern Norway
- est 150 executions
- Moravia Witch Trials (1622-1696)
- Occurred in Silesia, Czech Republic
- est 250 executions
- Wurzburg Witch Trials (1626-1631)
- Occurred in Wurzburg, Germany
- est 900 executions
- Bamberg Witch Trials (1626-1631)
- Occurred in Bamberg, Germany
- est 1000 executions
- Mergentheim Witch Trials (1628-1631)
- Occurred in Mergentheim, Germany
- 126 executions
- Livonia Werewolf trials (1633-1692)
- Occurred in Livonia, Latvia
- 31 accusations
- Bury St. Edmonds Witch Trials (1645-1662)
- Occurred in Suffolk, England
- est 18 executions
- Nogaredo Witch Trials (1646-1647)
- Occurred in Nogaredo, Italy
- est 8 to 10 executions
- Great Scottish Witch Hunt (1649-1650)
- Occurred in Scotland
- est 612 accusations, 300 executions
- Great Scottish Witch Hunt (1661-1662)
- Occurred in Scotland
- est 660 accusations, 200 executions
- Vardo Witch Trials (1662-1663)
- Occurred in Northern Norway
- 20 executions
- Esslingen Witch Trials (1662-1666)
- Occurred in Esslingen, Germany
- 37 executions
- Finspang Witch Trials (1668-1676)
- Occurred in Ostergotland, Sweden
- est 7 to 9 executions
- Mora Witch Trials (1669)
- Occurred in Mora, Sweden
- est 60 accusations, 17 exeuctions
- Torsaker Witch Trials (1675)
- Occurred in Torsaker, Sweden
- 71 executions
- Salzburg Witch Trials (1675-1690)
- Occurred in Salzburg, Austria
- 139 executions
- Affair of the Poisons (1677-1682)
- Occurred in France
- 36 executions
- Lichtenstein Witch Trials (1679-1682)
- Occurred in Lichtenstein
- est 100 executions
- Salem Witch Trials (1692)
- Occurred in Salem, USA
- 19 executions
- Paisley Witch Trials (1696)
- Occurred in Paisley, Scotland
- 7 executions
- Szeged Witch Trials (1728-1729)
- Occurred in Szeged, Hungary
- 14 executions
By 1750 the practice of witch-hunting and trials had begun to decline throughout Europe and America. By this point witchcraft was no longer considered a criminal offense. This was most likely due to the fact of the countless accusers and officials who later recanted their accusations as ill-advised and simply incorrect. In 1735 Great Britain passed a new law which prohibited anyone from accusing someone of witchcraft. This act demonstrated the widespread realization that witch-hunting was no more than a paranoid hysteria.I suppose in defense of the legal proceedings, the witch trials were not so much about proving supernatural powers yet more were against the worship of the devil. To this day the practice of black arts and satanic worship are still very frowned upon however the trials of old have long pasted. On the flip side of the dark arts there is also the practice of white magic, a form of healing and folk religion. These good witches would probably have been tried and hanged all the same as the bad witches back in the colonial days, however today they openly practice their beliefs. The religion of Wicca was established in the 1920s and today remains as the most populated Pagan religion.
Popular Culture pertaining to Witches
Although I know I have only scratched at the surface of this topic with a brief focus on the colonial age, I'd like to also consider this post as a cultural study. As I mentioned above the idea of witches has captured the fascination of many writers in modern history. Today it is embedded in most societies as an iconic character of popular culture. The common witch is usually depicted as an old hag, with a big nose, a black hat, riding on a broom stick, and accompanied by cats. Next to pumpkins, witches are probably the most distinctive element of Halloween. They are commonly associated with spookiness yet more-so in a light-tone satirical sense.
Just like with pirates, witches are often represented as the archetype villain in a fantasy. For me the Wicked Witch of the West from the Wizard of Oz was probably my first experience of witches and to this day I think she is the most definitive image of a witch. However also just like with pirates there are good witches as demonstrated in other forms of literature and movies. It was quite recently that the author JK Rowling brought a whole new perspective to witchcraft with her popular books of Harry Potter. Here she expanded on the fictional world of witchcraft by adding more wizards and a school for the magically gifted. This series was mostly a light-toned fantasy, however it did get a bit darker and more intense in the later novels.Below is a list of what I consider some of the most iconic representations of witches in books, TV, and movies. I'm sure I'll be missing some on this list however these are the main ones for me that come to mind. Also as mentioned many times before I am not a fan of horror films and realize that witches are probably a common character in those productions.
- Hansel and Gretal (1812) Perhaps one of the earliest depictions of a witch in fantasy literature was published by the Grim Brothers in this popular German fairy tale. Two children are lost in the woods and welcomed by a witch who plots to fatten the children and eat them. This is one of many popular German fairy tales published by the Grim Brothers that pertains to the villainy of witches.
- The Scarlet Letter (1850) this classic work of American literature by Nathaniel Hawthorne pertains to an adulteress woman who is very much tempted by witchcraft. This is because she is cast out from society and remains on the brink of madness. The witch Ann Hibbins is the historical witch in this story who unsuccessfully tempts Hester on various occasions.
- The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900, 1939) This children's novel by L. Frank Baum has become one of the most famous stories pertaining to witchcraft. The story's main character Dorothy arrives in the land of Oz and encounters 4 witches (2 good and 2 bad). The most iconic of these witches is the Wicked Witch of the West. In the popular 1939 film she was played brilliantly by Margaret Hamilton. The story has sense had many adaptations and expansions to it's universe.
- Lord of the Rings (1937, 2001-2013) This epic fantasy novel by JR Tolkien mostly pertains to wizards. The character of Gandalf is the heroic good wizard while Sarumon is the evil wizard and pawn of the dark lord Sauron. Their wizard battle in The Fellowship of the Rings was very exciting material. The book was later adapted into very popular films in 2001, 2002, and 2003 directed by Peter Jackson.
- Chronicles of Narnia (1950-1956) Were a popular fantasy novel written by CS Lewis consisting of 7 books. The main antagonist of the first two books was Jadis the White Witch. In the Lion, Witch, and the Wardrobe she has frozen all of Narnia and seeks to imprison the young Pevensie children. Three of these books were later adapted by Disney; The Lion, Witch and Wardrobe, Prince Caspian, and Voyage of the Dawn Treader.
- The Crucible (1953) This famous play by Arthur Miller is a historical drama pertaining to the Salem Witch Trials of 1692. By taking some liberty with the characters, Miller creates a very engaging drama in the midst of this hysteria. To this day it is considered one of Miller's most famous plays and the story was later adapted into a film in 1993 starring Winona Ryder and Daniel Day Lewis.
- Sleeping Beauty (1959) this Walt Disney animated film demonstrated yet another very iconic witch in Maleficent. She is in my opinion one of the most powerful witches in all of the Disney films. Her character was later portrayed by Angelina Jolie in the recent live-action films.
- The Sword in the Stone (1963) This Disney animated film portrayed the legendary wizard of Merlin as he counseled the young boy Arthur. The movie is filled with light-toned magical musical, and humorous sequences. However Merlin does have a decent sorcery battle with the dark witch known as Madam Mim.
- Hocus Pocus (1993) This Disney comedy film of three witches has become somewhat of a Halloween classic over the years. I think I've only seen it once and found it be somewhat sappy overall.
- Charmed (1998-2006) This popular TV series pertained to three modern day sisters who engaged in witchcraft and the supernatural. I have not ever watched the show yet am familiar with it, more so because of the very attractive actresses.
- Harry Potter Series (1997-2013) Are a series of fantasy novels by JK Rowling pertaining to the secret world of witchcraft and wizardry. It's main character Harry Potter is welcomed to the school of witchcraft, Hogwarts, where he makes various friends and enemies. While the book begins as a light-hearted children's novel it later gets into darker elements of witchcraft pertaining to the antagonist Voldermort. Nonetheless it is still a very entertaining story that has brought new perspective to the appeal of witchcraft. The books were quickly adapted into popular fantasy films.
- Wicked (2003) This popular Broadway musical is an expansion of the Wizard of Oz story from the perspective of the witches. I am not yet familiar with the story or it'smusic however am
aware of it's popularity. The show is currently the fifth longest running Broadway show in production. - Into the Woods (2014) This is a musical film I have not seen yet adapted from Stephen Sondheim's 1986 Broadway Musical. The story is basically a merging of various Brother Grimm fairy tales. However the main antagonist played by Meryl Streep received great acclaim, including an Oscar nomination for best supporting actress.
- The Witch (2015) As stated many times before I don't care for horror films, however did recently watch this in the spirit of this fascination. This film set in 1630 New England, wasn't all that scary and actually had some impressive costume and settings. The young girl must come to terms with her ailment and eventually her whole family is killed while she joins the cult in the forest. Truly a terrible story, but still a good historical setting and no doubt the adult representation of witchcraft.
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