Historical Study: Golden Age of Piracy

Ever since I was a little kid, I've always been fascinated by the idea of pirates. They have often been portrayed as villainous mercenaries of the sea yet also celebrated for their lifestyle of adventure. Pirates have been a part of pop culture for many years now demonstrated in books, movies, television shows, songs, sports teams, and so forth. Perhaps my earliest association of the cliche portrayal of pirates must have been the Disney films, Peter Pan and Hook. I was especially partial to the story of Peter Pan since we performed the play at school when I was in 1st grade. In J.M. Barrie's classic novel, the heroic Peter Pan does battle with a gang of pirates led by the cruel Captain Hook. From then on began many other associations to the adventurous portrayal of pirates.

Pirates in Popular Culture

Another early association for me was the many sports teams that carry pirate themes. For starters the private school I went, our team name was the St. John New Haven Raiders. Also there was my love of baseball as a young boy, and I remember that cool team out of Pittsburgh with their black and yellow colors led by their superstar Barry Bonds, known as the Pirates. By the time I had gotten to fourth and fifth grade I began to enjoy the NFL, and became familiar with the Oakland Raiders and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. As a young boy/teenager it just seemed cool to be a free-spirited pirate sailing the sea in search of treasure. 

I later remember in junior high reading the novel Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson and becoming familiar with the infamous character Captain Long John Silver. I also loved seafood since I was kid (perhaps part of being Catholic) and loved our trips to the pirate-themed seafood restaurants of Red Lobster and Long John Silver. I later remember in my teenage years enjoying the Nickelodeon cartoon Spongebob Squarepants which also had major pirate elements to it's comedy.

Then of course when I was in high school Disney released perhaps one of the most iconic pirate films to date, the Pirates of the Caribbean starring Johnny Depp as the iconic Captain Jack Sparrow. The film series went on to release 4 more sequels yet none were near as good as the original. Nonetheless Disney made a fortune from the film series and revitalized the legends of pirates celebrated in classics such as Treasure Island and Peter Pan. To this day pirates are a popular theme among kids, costume parties, seafaring trips, or any other form of entertainment. However the question I would like to better understand is the history of these pirates. 

As I noted in the previous post, this recent fascination with pirates and the age of exploration is derived from the game Assassin's Creed 4: Black Flag (of which I will later have a review on.). The game is set on the Caribbean Islands during the early 1700s in what is often considered as the Golden Age of Piracy. There can be no doubt that this idea of piracy goes back to the ancient days of history and was quite prevalent during the height of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Yet the iconic portrayal of pirates as we know them today was derived from the period ranging from 1650-1730. This was an age of lawlessness in a new world that was undergoing discovery and establishment. 

History of the Golden Age

By the late 1500's the Caribbean had become a booming center of trade, attracting many Europeans (such as the Spanish, British, French, and Dutch) to seek new fortune. There was a new boom in privateering businesses, seeking former navy sailors to set sail on warships of trade, exploration, or military purposes. This privateer lifestyle offered new freedoms from the harsh discipline of the navy and many Europeans quickly sought out work as privateers. In essence these were mostly sea-mercenaries hired by the government or some major company to seek a fortune. From this new booming business came the wicked cousin of the privateer, piracy. 

The major difference between the privateer and the pirate, was that the pirate was operating without any financial backing. Unlike the privateer, still operating as an employee, the pirate was more so a freeman loyal to the captain and the ship. Also worth noting there were good pirates and bad pirates. The good ones often operated on behalf of their nation such as the English, Francis Drake . Others stole from the rich to give to the poor such as the the famous Spanish corsair, Amaro Pargo. However the bad ones took advantage of their lifestyle of lawlessness and partook in crime, pillaging, and plunder. By the early 1600s the piracy business had begun to thrive in the new world of the Caribbean, with major seaports operating out of Tortuga, Nassau, and Port Royal.  

These thriving pirates operating out of the Caribbean were also referred to as Buccaneers (to separate them from piracy elsewhere in the world). The piracy in the North Africa trade routes were referred to as Barbary pirates or Ottoman corsairs. After the Thirty Years War was finished in 1650 the Europeans (specifically the Spanish and English) re-averted much of their financial endeavors into sea trade. Spain was in the midst of a major transition, losing much of the power they had once held under King Philip. Therefore the Caribbean region became a booming center of colonial trade that was highly contested among warring nations, yet also freelance pirates. During this time the Caribbean Sea had become a melting pot of chaos, outlaw, and opportunity, similar to the Wild West, which gave way to the Golden Age of Piracy.

By the late 1600s there were nearly 2400 active pirates operating throughout the Caribbean Sea. Most of which were former sailors, criminals, slaves, privateers, or various other seafaring backgrounds. They lived a life of freewheeling, loyal to the code of their ship and to their captain. Many notorious sea captains found great success as pirates during this age such as Blackbeard, Henry Morgan, Bartholomew Roberts, and Mary Read. By the early 1700s in response to this booming problem of piracy, the European nations began establishing navy ports in the Caribbean to protect their financial interests. New laws were enacted with very harsh punishments against piracy, including executions and public hangings. By the 1720s following the post Spanish Succession period, piracy in the Caribbean had withered away. 

Famous Historical Pirates

• Barbarossa Brothers 
• Origin: Ottoman
• Years Active: 1500-1545
• Piracy: Hayreddin Barbaossa and his elder brother Oruc Reis, were notorious Ottoman corsairs during the early 1500s. They raided many European trade ships along North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Hayreddin was later made grand admiral of the Ottoman Navy by Suleiman the Magnificent. His greatest claim to fame was the capture of Algiers in 1516 from the Spanish by which he became ruler of and later annexed the territory to the Ottoman Empire.  
• Sir Francis Drake

• Origin: English
• Years Active: 1563-1596
• Piracy: Perhaps one of the most famous British naval captain's in history, he was regarded as a privateer, an explorer, a military captain, yet also a pirate. His first claim to fame came in 1577 with his circumvention of the world in one single trip and his discovery of California. During this voyage he partook in a campaign of piracy against Spanish ships located in the South Pacific Ocean. He captured and looted treasure from these Spanish ships in the name of his English Queen Elizabeth. The Queen later rewarded Francis Drake's loyalty with a knighthood and a vice-admiral post. After his piracy and exploration campaigns Sir Francis Drake played a vital role in commanding the English navy to victory at the Spanish Armada of 1588. 
• Francis l'Olonnais
• Origin: French
• Years Active: 1660-1668
• Notable Ships:
• Piracy: Francis l'Olonnais was a French servant who later became a buccaneer based out of Tortuga and established a crew of pirates. His greatest claim to fame was his sacking of Maracaibo, Venezuela in 1666 with a fleet of 8 ships and 440 pirates. This plunder of Spanish wealth brought him great profit yet also notoriety by which he was later hunted by the Spanish Empire. Also known as the "Bane of Spain", Francis' final campaign was in Nicaragua in 1667 by which he was forced to retreat to land, and was later captured and executed by an indigenous tribe in Panama.   
• Henry Morgan

• Origin: Welsh
• Years Active: 1663-1671
• Notable Ships: Oxford
• Piracy: In the likes of Sir Francis Drake, Henry Morgan was a heroic pirate he acted on behalf of his British Empire. Throughout the late 1660s he conducted various campaigns of piracy against the Spanish fleets located in Maracaibo. Perhaps his greatest claim to fame was his sack of Panama City in 1671. In an effort to appease Spanish hostilities the British kingdom recalled and arrested Henry Morgan for his pirate campaigns. However revered by the British public as a hero, Henry Morgan was later assigned to public office, as lieutenant governor of Jamaica. He is among the most iconic pirates celebrated in various novels and films, yet most recognized for the popular Jamaican brand of rum, Captain Morgan.     
• Henry Every
• Origin: English
• Years Active: 1694-1696 
• Notable Ships: Charles II later renamed the Fancy
• Piracy: Henry Every, also referred to as Benjamin Bridgeman or Long Ben is often considered to be one of the most profitable of pirates in history. His greatest claim to fame was being able to retire with his loot, rather than be captured or executed for his crimes. His greatest plunder in 1695 was of the Mughal Empire, and their 25-ship convoy of treasure located in the Indian Ocean. Despite there being a worldwide manhunt for him, Henry Every was able to retire from piracy and live out the rest of his days in hiding. 
• William Kidd

• Origin: Scottish
• Years Active: 1695-1701
• Notable Ships: Adventure Galley, Quedagh Merchant
• Piracy: William Kidd is one of several famous pirates who transitioned from privateering to pirating. He was first commissioned to hunt pirates throughout the Indian Ocean in 1695. However after facing various mutiny threats from his crew he switched his allegiance and began piracy campaigns from the ports of Madagascar. His greatest plunder came in 1697 when he commandeered the Armenian ship Quedagh Merchant. This not only gave him a sizable profit yet also a powerful new ship. Kidd was eventually hunted and arrested in the Boston harbor. In 1701 he was tried and executed by the English courts, and his body was famously hung in a cage on the River Thames to warn others against piracy. 
• Amaro Pargo
• Origin: Spanish
• Years Active: 1712-1729
• Notable Ships: Ave Maria y Las Animas
• Piracy: Often considered the Spanish equivalent to Sir Francis Drake, Amaro Pargo was another example of a patriotic pirate acting on behalf of his country. Throughout his heyday he stole from various English and Dutch ships throughout the Atlantic and Caribbean. He was also renown for giving away much of his treasure and loot to the poor, in a rather Robin Hood style. In 1725 he was honored by the Spanish Crown as a hero of nobility.  
• Edward Teech "Blackbeard"
• Origin: English
  
• Years Active: 1716-1718
• Notable Ships: Queen Anne's Revenge
• Piracy: Often regarded as one of the most infamous and notorious pirates in history, Edward Teech was renown for his cruel and unusual tactics. He was a very intimidating figure with his black beard that he would often light with fuses. During his brief heyday he established one of the most threatening ships in the North Atlantic Ocean with 40 cannons and a crew of 300. His blockade and ransom of the port of Charleston, SC was perhaps his greatest claim to fame. Shortly after this the governor of Virginia, Alexander Spotswood organized a fleet to capture Blackbeard by which he was killed in battle in November of 1718. His terrifying appearance has become the iconic image of the fictional pirate villain. 
• John Rackham "Calico Jack"
• Origin: English
• Years Active: 1718-1720
• Notable Ships: The Kingston
• Piracy: While a rather short-lived campaign of piracy his story is most celebrated for his love affair with the female pirate Anne Bonny. His first claim to fame came in 1718 when he lead a mutiny of the infamous pirate of the Bahamas, Charles Vane. He later became captain of the Kingston and conducted various raids of piracy throughout Port Royal. During this time he fell for Anne Bonny, the wife of another sailor, and ran off with her to take part in piracy together. Calico Jack was eventually hunted, captured, and executed in Port Royal in November of 1720
• Anne Bonny

• Origin: Irish
• Years Active: 1718-1720
• Piracy: She lived as wife to a sailor located in Nassau, Bahamas which was a booming port of piracy during the time. It was there that she began a love affair with the pirate Calico Jack and later ran off with him. Since it was often considered bad luck to have a woman onboard a ship, she would disguise herself as a man. However she later became pregnant and had her baby in Cuba. She later rejoined Calico Jack's crew, until they were all captured and imprisoned in 1720. Anne managed to give birth, however there is no source pertaining to her death. 
• Mary Read
• Origin: English
• Years Active: 1718-1721
• Piracy: At an early age Mary Read was a bit of a tomboy and often dressed as a boy to get further ahead. On a voyage to the West Indies in 1718 her ship was attacked by pirates of which she decided to join. She later joined Calico Jack's crew, disguised as a man, and was secretly discovered by Anne Bonny, who was also disguised as a man onboard the ship. For this reason there is often speculation that the two shared some form of lesbian relationship, alongside Bonny's affair with captain Calico Jack. This unique love triangle is no doubt the stuff of a juicy adventure soap-opera. Nonetheless Mary Reed was also captured with Calico Jack and Anne Bonny and eventually she died in prison in 1721. 
• Bartholomew Roberts
• Origin: Welsh
  
• Years Active: 1719-1722
• Notable Ships: The Good Fortune
• Piracy: Also known as "Black Bert" Bartholomew Roberts is often regarded as the most successful pirate of the golden age of piracy, measured by the amount of vessels he captured, over 400 ships. Beginning as a privateer, Roberts later became renowned for his leadership and navigation abilities and became a captain engaged in piracy. In  July of 1719 he conducted various campaigns near Brazil and throughout the Caribbean Sea. In 1720 he plundered ships along the American Atlantic coastline, as far north Newfoundland. In 1721 he engaged in piracy along the coast of West Africa until he was hunted by a British navy officer and killed in battle near the Calabrar River of Nigeria. Bartholomew Roberts is often regarded as one of the principle sources of the pirate code.    

Books, Movies, and Shows about Pirates

• General History of the Pyrates (1724) biographical book by Captain John Charles Johnson. This biographical book by the mysterious author, is considered the main source of history and lore regarding the golden age of Piracy. This book went on to inspire the whole swashbuckling fascination with Pirates, most notably the famous novel, Treasure Island, by Robert Louis Stevenson. 
• Treasure Island (1883) novel by Robert Louis Stevenson. This is no doubt the most famous novel pertaining to pirates. It tells the tale of a young boy's experience hunting for treasure with a band of mischievous pirates led by the iconic Captain Long John Silver. The book has undergone many film and tv adaptations and even influenced a popular fast food chain Lohn John Silvers. 
• Peter Pan (1904) theater play and book by J.M. Barrie. Perhaps the 2nd most iconic story recounting pirates after Treasure Island. This is a classic tale of a young girl who doesn't want to grow up and escapes to Neverland with Peter Pan. Here on this fantasy island she encounters other run-away children, fairies, mermaids, native-Americans, and villainous pirates. One of the most infamous of these pirates is Peter Pan's arch-nemesis Captain Hook. This original work by JM Barrie went on to inspire many other TV and film adaptations such as Walt Disney's animated film (1953) and live action film Captain Hook (1991). 
• Captain Blood (1934) this was one of many classic pirate films and stars the iconic outlaw Errol Flynn. It was nominated for 5 Oscars and considered among the most famous of early pirate films. 
• The Buccaneer (1938) Another classic pirate film, directed by the great Cecil B. Demille. It recounts the story of the French buccaneer Jean Lafitte, who aided the Americans in defeating the French at the Battle of New Orleans in 1812. The film was later re-made in 1958 starring Antony Quinn and Charlton Heston. 
• Treasure Island (1950) Of the many film and TV adaptations this one is often regarded as the pinnacle. The film was one of the first of many Disney pirate-themed productions and stars Robert Newton as Captain Long John Silver and Bobby Driscoll as Jim Hawkins (who later voiced Peter Pan in Disney's animated classic).  
  
• Peter Pan (1953) This animated classic produced by Walt Disney was in my opinion the best adaptation of the classic Peter Pan story. The film was a huge success, among a string of great Disney films released in the 1950s. While controversial for it's display of native Americans, the film provided quintessential pirate elements.  
• A Pirate Looks at Forty (1974) song by Jimmy Buffet. While I know there are many melodies and songs about pirates this is one of my all time favorites. It basically recounts the life of a man who looks back at his life of piracy and ponders his future. Although I'm not a huge Jimmy Buffet fan, this is hands down my favorite of his songs. Jack Johnson also has a great cover of this song with Dave Matthews. 
• Hook (1991) Yet another pirate film from Disney studios, this was a live action adaptation of the Peter Pan story. It starred Robin Williams as Peter Pan, Julia Roberts as Tinkerbell, and Dustin Hoffman as Captain Hook. I honestly wasn't too impressed with the film, however it is still worth mentioning here as it was nominated for 5 Oscars. 
• Spongebob Squarepants (1999-present) This was one of my favorite cartoons during my high school years, that pertains to fish living under the sea. While the main characters (Spongebob, Patrick, and Squidward) are not affiliated with piracy, the comedic show is loaded with pirate references, such as Patchy the Pirate. 
• Pirates of the Caribbean Series (2003-2017) Disney has reinvigorated the pirate genre with it's major blockbuster franchise in recent days. It is a complete original production, pertaining to the adventures of Captain Jack Sparrow (played brilliantly by Johnny Depp) on board his Black Pearl. I loved the first film, however have not cared much for the following 4 sequels. It's my understanding that the franchise is not finished and further films are being considered for production. 
• Black Sails (2014-2017) I have yet to see this Starz TV series however I have heard that it is top quality drama. The TV show blends elements of fiction with historical pirates during the Golden Age of Piracy. There are 4 seasons with 38 shows and definitely a must-watch for anyone who enjoys the genre of pirates (historical and mythological). 

Historical Study: Age of Exploration

This year I have undergone a major historical renaissance mostly due to the entertaining video game series, Assassin's Creed. This has become one of my new all time favorite video game series alongside other major hitters in my teenage years such as Super Mario, Zelda, Donkey Kong, and FIFA. What I have come to especially enjoy about the AC series, is the full submersion into a historical era. I am about halfway thru my AC phase (completing 8 games with 6 more to go before the release of Valhalla in December).

The past few weeks now I have embarked on the game, Assassin's Creed: Black Flag. This is a full submersion into the golden piracy age of the early 1700s, set in the Caribbean Sea. As I began this game regarding pirates, the first association that came to mind was the popular movie series, Pirates of the Caribbean. And while the adventures of the Black Pearl are quintessential pirate movies, they are more so fantasy films than historical dramas. It was not until I began playing AC 4 that I came to better understand the historical setting of the Piracy Age; centered in the Caribbean Sea.

However before I begin my study on the Golden Age of Piracy I first need to go back a bit further in time and recount the Age of Exploration (also referred to as the Age of Discovery). In my blog I often tend to focus on the military or revolutionary events of history, and overlook the scientific, economic, or industrial events. This age of discovery began as a scientific event, that quickly transformed into an economic, industrial, and political event. It was a major renaissance for humanity that gave way to a Scientific Revolution. Humanity came to the sudden realization that the world was not flat, but round.

Discovery of the New World

The European discovery of the western hemisphere (later known as the Americas) opened up a whole new world of culture, trade, and resources. However with this massive discovery came a new race of territorial expansionism. Imperial powers such as Spain and Britain emerged with new intentions to expand their monarchy, establish colonies, acquire resources, and control the sea routes of the Atlantic Ocean. 

One can only imagine the chaos of this time, as a new world was establishing a new identity. (The first comparison that comes to mind is the lawlessness of the Old Wild West of the 1800s). Upon their discoveries, European powers sought to establish a new territorial presence in these regions, and controversially eradicate the local indigenous natives. This gave way to a multi-faceted dispute among natives and foreign invaders. Furthermore as European Powers fought one another for territorial control, a new breed of piracy had emerged within the region, seeking to establish their own personal glory. It was no doubt a very intriguing age of foreign colonialism, that eventually gave way to the Spanish and American revolutions. 

Portuguese Explorations

The Age of Exploration was essentially a branch of the European Renaissance that could also be considered a part of the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment. This period marked a transition away from the medieval dark ages unto a greater understanding of the world. The roots of the European exploration could be dated as far back as the mid 1200s with Marco Polo's explorations of Asia. Yet the western sea voyages began in the early 1400s thanks to new inventions such as the compass and better ship designs. 

The Portuguese led the way with maritime exploration in the early 1400s, under the administrative direction of Prince Henry the Navigator. Prince Henry was the 4th son of King John I of Portugal, and ushered in a new exploration of the West African coastline. His intentions were to establish new trade routes and further Portuguese influence throughout Africa. In 1488 the Portuguese navigator, Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern most tip of Africa known as the Cape of Good Hope. He thus became the first European to sail around southern tip of Africa and into the Indian Ocean.

The vision of Prince Henry became a reality ten years later when Vasco de Gama expanded beyond on Bartolomeu Dias' discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. The voyage began on July of 1497 from Lisbon by which Vasco de Gama (on board the Sao Gabriel) sailed around Africa and arrived at Calicut India on May of 1948. This voyage established a new sea route from Europe to Asia which brought about a new golden age of multicultural trade. Soon Europe would become more accustomed to Indian, Arabian, and Asian spices and vice versa. Portugal controlled this route for some time, until they were later challenged by the Dutch, British, and Ottomans. 

Columbus' discovery of South America

Whilst Portugal was making great maritime advancements in the 1400s, the Spanish kingdom of Aragon was also arriving as a new power in the Iberia. While Aragon had controlled many of the sea routes in the Mediterranean they began to fear Portugal's influence on the west. The year 1492 was a very significant year for the history of Spain yet more so the age of exploration. During this year the Spanish Kingdom was established with the marriage of Queen Isabella of Castille and King Ferdinand II of Aragon. Furthermore Rodrigo Borgia had become Pope Alexander VI, strengthening the interests of Spain. However the greatest event of the year, came with the funding of Christopher Columbus' voyage.

The initial intent of Columbus' voyage was to find a new route to Asia and thus challenge Portugal's southern Cape Route. The Italian navigator had hoped to profit on the spice trade and first presented his plans to Portugal yet was rejected several times. After persistent attempts he was finally sponsored by the kingdom of Castille and set sail on August 3rd of 1942 on board three ships (the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria). After a brief stop at the Canary Islands, Columbus finally arrived at present day San Salvador, Bahamas on Oct 12, 1492 (believing he was in the East Indies). 

Columbus then spent some time exploring the Caribbean islands and the indigenous locals which he referred to as "Indians' believing them to be from India. He also quickly noted that they were primitive and would be easy to conquer. As Columbus continued to explore the islands (including Cuba, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic) he established settlements while taking several of the natives as prisoners to return to Europe. He returned to Europe in March of 1493, first visiting Portugal then welcomed into Spain as a hero. News of his discovery quickly spread throughout Europe, however Columbus was eager to return on a 2nd voyage to establish Catholicism yet also acquire great wealth. 

Columbus went on to make 3 more voyages to the Caribbean Sea in 1493, 1498, and 1502 establishing various settlements. What is quite interesting is that he never set foot in North America and that discovery could be more so accredited to the vikings 200 years earlier. Nonetheless Columbus' discovery of these new islands were monumental and ushered in a new era of European exploration into the new world. It also brought about new tensions, first between Spain and Portugal, who collaborated with Pope Alexander VI to divide the territory in the Treaty of Tordesillas. The line was more favorable to the Spanish who would later establish colonies in Central and South America, while Portugal established colonies in Africa and in Brazil. 

It was not until various other explorations that Europe was able to determine this new region was not the West Indies yet rather a New World. This claim was made popular by the Italian navigator, Amerigo Vespucci who helped discover Guyana and Brazil. He later published a pamphlet known as the New World in 1501 which became widespread throughout Europe. Shortly after the newly discovered world become known as "the Americas" as a homage to Amerigo Vespucci's claim. However it was not until several years later that North America was properly discovered. 

Discovery of North America

While Spain and Portugal became concentrated in the southern hemisphere of the new world; Britain, France, and the Netherlands focused their attention to the north. Now as mentioned before it is commonly accepted that North America had already been discovered nearly 500 years earlier by the vikings. Under the leadership of Leif Erikson, the Norse vikings discovered the regions of Greenland, Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. However while the vikings discovered the northern regions, today known as Canada, they hardly inhabited the region and thus Europe was not aware of North America until 500 years later during the Age of Discovery.

The English and French sent various exploration missions throughout the 1500s of North America in search of a northwest passage connecting Europe to Asia. This route was never discovered, however by 1520 the Portuguese had begun to establish fishing colonies in the northern regions of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. Perhaps one of the most significant discoveries of North America, came under the French funded voyage of Giovanni da Verrazzano. In 1524 the Italian voyager was able to explore and establish the line of the Atlantic Coast from Newfoundland to South Carolina. Soon after the British, Dutch, and French began establishing colonies throughout the northern coastline. 

McGellan's Voyage Around the World

In 1513 another major discovery in the geography of the world was made by Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balbao. Working off of native information, Balbao navigated thru the Isthmus of Panama and became the first European to discover the Pacific Ocean. This discovery gave way to new explorations along the western coast of the New World both in North America and South America. Further discoveries of South America were made by Juan Diaz Solis who discovered the Rio de la Plata of Argentina in 1515.

Another significant voyage was made in 1519 under the leadership of Portugese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. Funded once again by the Spanish monarchy, Magellan had hoped to acheive Columbus' earlier goal which was to find a western route to Asia (surpassing the newly discovered Americas). He set sail from Spain on September 20th of 1519 onboard the Victoria and navigated along the eastern coastline of South America. He eventually discovered the southernmost point of South America, known as the Tierra del Fuego and this passage later became known as the Straits of Magellan.

The fleet of 5 ships and 270 men sailed across the Pacific Ocean and reached the Philippines on March 16th of 1521. On the island of Mactan the indigenous Lapulapu tribe resisted the European arrival and Ferdinand Magellan was killed at the Battle of Mactan in April of 1521. Following the death of Magellan the voyage was continued by Juan Sebestain Elcano with very minimal resources. They reached the Cape of Good Hope on May of 1522 and finally arrived back to Spain in September of 1522 thus completely the first ever circumvention of the world. Of the 270 men who originally set sail, only 18 returned onboard the Victoria. 

Hernan Cortes' conquest of the Mayans and Aztecs

Having made many new discoveries in the Caribbean, Central America, and South America the Spanish Empire sought to expand their coastal settlements. This initiative was driven by merchant soldiers known as conquistadors. They were not associated to the Spanish army, more so explorers and mercenaries in search of wealth and prosperity in the new world. Two of the most infamous of these conquistadors were Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizzaro.  

Having established a province in Cuba, the Spanish empire sought to explore further west into the Yucatan Peninsula. The region of Central America had first been discovered by Columbus' 4th voyage in 1502. It was further explored by Vasco Nunez Balbao who was able to discover the Pacific Ocean thru the Isthmus of Panama in 1513. However it was in 1517 when the Europeans first began to engage with the most developed civilizations in central America, known as the Mayans and the Aztecs. This first expedition led by commander Hernandez de Cordoba ended poorly for the Spanish, and demonstrated the strong resistance of the Mayan people. 

In 1519 the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortez took the command of conquering the Yucatan Peninsula and present-day Mexico. He set sail with 11 ships, 500 soldiers, 13 horses, and an arsenal of cannons and other heavy weapons. The strongest resistance from the Mayans came at the region of Tabasco who proved to be no match against the Spanish gunfire. The Mayans were quickly forced to cede their territory to the Spanish, offering them gold and treasures as a peace offering. From the Mayans, Cortes took one of their noble princesses, La Malinche as his mistress. She also became his advisor and translator in his further campaigns throughout Mexico.

In the city of Tenochtitlan (present day Mexico-City) Cortes discovered the powerful Aztec Empire. He was hesitantly welcomed by the emperor Montezuma II who offered him gold as a diplomatic offering. However the tensions eventually spilled over when a band of Cortes' men were attacked by the Aztecs and in response Cortes took Montezuma hostage. The situation grew even more complicated when Cortes was opposed by another Spanish conquistador in the region and the Alvarado Massacre occurred in the city of Tenochtitlan. The Spanish were temporarily driven out by a furious Aztec rebellion however Cortes later returned with an even stronger army. He defeated the Aztecs at the Battle of Otumba in July of 1520, then finally conquered the city of Tenochtitlan in May of 1521. Montuzema II was killed in the ensuing battles and Cortes claimed the city for the Spanish, renaming it Mexico City. 

Francisco Pizzaro's conquest of the Inca Empire

In 1524 Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizzaro had heard rumors of a wealthy civilization known as the Incas and set out to explore the west coast of South America. According to legends from the Colombian region there was a golden city of treasure, known as El Dorado, which Pizzaro hoped to discover. He set out with an army 80 men, 40 horses, and several priests to convert the region to Catholicism as was the norm during these expeditions. However Pizzaro's first expedition was a failure due to bad weather and local hostilities from the natives.

On their second voyage in 1526 Pizzaro discovered the first Inca settlement in the city of Atacmes (located in modern day Ecuador). However lacking provisions he chose not to press on, yet to temporarily settle in Columbia with 13 men. By April of 1528 Pizzaro was able to gather sufficient provisions to press further into the region and discovered the northern territory of Peru known as the Tumbes Region. The Spanish explorers were warmly welcomed by the Incas and witnessed the great wealth of gold and silver within the region. Upon this discovery Pizzaro returned to Spain and was able to convince King Charles I to fund his outright conquest of Peru. 

In December 1530 Pizzaro set off on his third expedition into Peru with 3 ships and an army of 180 men. He returned to the northwestern coast of Tumbes and quickly discovered the region was in the midst of a civil war. Nonetheless the Spanish quickly established the city of San Miguel de Piura as their base of operations. They eventually made an envoy effort to meet with the Incan emperor Atahualpa, who refused in turn to welcome the Spanish. This gave way to the Battle of Cajamarca in which Pizzaro's 200 soldiers were able to defeat the Incan Empire.

By 1533 Pizzaro completed his conquest of Peru by invading the city of Cuzco and executing emperor Atahualpa. Although the Spanish never discovered the legendary city of El Dorado they still ransacked all the gold and wealth the region had to offer. In 1535 Pizzaro established the city of Lima as the new capital of Peru. Quite surprisingly the incredible Inca city of Machu Picchu was not discovered until 1911. This became referred to as the lost city of the Incas by which the tribe relocated up in the mountains to escape from Spanish conquest. Built in 1450 this monumental location stands today as one of the most iconic symbols of the Incan Empire and Latin indigenous culture. 

Naval Conflicts between Spanish and British

By the 1550s Spain and Portugal had solid colonial establishments throughout the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. Meanwhile North America was still being settled by the Dutch, British, and French. Political tensions began to arise between the Iberian nations and the north European nations, that eventually gave way to the Eighty Years War beginning in 1568. The Dutch managed to rebel against the Spanish Empire and established their own prominent empire, with various oversea trading posts and colonies. One of the most significant of these Dutch settlements was established along the island of Manhattan in 1624, known as New Amsterdam (present day New York City).

England however took the forefront on opposing the mighty Spanish Empire, and the conflict reached it's pinnacle during the golden reign of Queen Elizabeth. Beginning in 1556, King Philip II of Spain had ushered in a golden age for Spain much thanks to their booming wealth acquired from the New World. In 1578 he swallowed up the Portuguese Empire which gave Spain more wealth and territory than any other nation in the world. However under the leadership of Queen Elizabeth, England was not intimidated by the Spanish Empire and began to challenge them on the open seas.

One of the most famous of English naval commanders during this time was Sir Francis Drake. Under the approval of Queen Elizabeth he began various pirating campaigns in 1578-1579 stealing treasure ships on the western coast of Lima, Peru. He later took part in commanding the English Navy alongside Lord Howard of Effingham at the Spanish Armada of 1588 which delivered a crucial defeat to Spain's naval supremacy. By the early 1600s the Spanish monopoly on sea routes began to wither, which allowed the British, French, and Dutch to establish their own significant economic presence in the new world. 

Study of Chinese Culture

So here it comes to this at last, my general study of all things China. I have already learned so much in the past few weeks regarding China's history yet now would like to summarize their culture. It's a culture I have always appreciated (especially their food) yet one I have rarely studied. However since my WWII and Pacific War phase in the springtime I suddenly found myself more intrigued then ever with Asian history and culture. I have therefore dedicated this to be the summer of Asian appreciation.

I think my earliest memories of Chinese culture was eating out at the Hainan House restaurant in Fort Wayne with my family. In those days my brother and I would always order the sweet-and-sour chicken and we especially loved the egg rolls, the fortune cookies, and the hot-and-sour soup. I remember one time I was so impressed with my brother who ordered just a big bowl of hot-and-sour soup as his meal. By around junior high we discovered Chinese buffets and soon our palette quickly expanded to many other popular Chinese dishes.

Aside from their tasty food, some other cultural associations that come to mind regarding Chinese culture are; their relaxing music, their colorful wardrobes, their distinctive architecture, the Great Wall of China, their martial arts, and the Beijing Olympics of 2008. I remember experiencing a minor Chinese appreciation phase during the summer Olympics of 2008 however that was just as I was establishing this blog in my days in Chicago. In the 12 years I'v had this blog it's rarely seen any mention of Asian history or culture (outside of the Beijing Olympics) until now.

Chinese Folklore and Mythology

Another image that often comes to mind when thinking of Chinese culture is the dragon. There is certainly a root to this fascination and with most ancient cultures it can be derived from their folklore. In the likes of Ancient Egypt, many of China's history, philosophy, and customs are derived from the beliefs of their ancient mythology. These texts date as far back as the 12 century BC, and some of their most notable sources include the Shui Jing Zhu and Shan Hai Jing. Many of these mythological components made their way into popular Chinese religions such as Confucism, Taoism, and Buddhism.

The creations myths are not quite as detailed as Egyptian or Greek mythology however still show some unique characteristics. For starters most Chinese creations myths emphasize that in the beginning the basic element was an air of energy known as Qi. This element was transfused with another element of vapor, that established a dual symmetry of life known as Ying and Yang. The source of this sudden transfusion is often credited to be powerful dieties such as Shangdi, Pangu, or Nuwa.

Perhaps one of the most famous of Chinese mythology is the account of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. These legendary rulers were believed to have reigned from 2850 to 2205 BC and were aided by deities and dragons. The three sovereigns were Fuxi (companion of the deity Nuwa),  Shennong (the divine farmer), and Huang Di (the yellow emperor). The five emperors were Shaohao Zhuanxu, Ku, Yao, and Shun. They set the groundwork for ancient China by which Yu the Great controlled the Great Flood and established China's first dynasty in 2070 BC.


Chinese Religion and Philosophy

Chinese religion is quite different from the western Abrahamic structure consisting of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. Unlike our western belief in one God and a savior, Chinese religion puts their emphasis on the power of humanity and one's self. This is no doubt a component of Western religion, often practiced thru prayer, however spiritualism is the center element of most Asian religions. So in that sense Chinese religion is more so a philosophy rather than a practiced religion and could be considered more-so an atheistic way of life. 

Chinese culture is shaped by three religious/philosophical teachings; Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. These three religions were passed on by philosophical teachers dating back to the 6th century. The first and most notable of these philosophers was Confucius who shared many of his ideals in the text known as the Analects. In this text he describes his philosophy based on the importance of humanity, righteousness, piety, and loyalty. Rather than a society that gives praise to a deity, Confucius believed society should honor the social structure, their family, and one another.

The practice of Taoism was established by various philosophers such as Laozi and Zuangzi. The key idea of this philosophy is a balance of nature, often represented by the concept of "wu wei". This ideology emphasizes a natural and balanced state of living against any extreme actions. The concept of dualism demonstrated in the yin and yang symbol is a key component of this belief. Taoists believe in the balance of happiness and virtue by honoring the Three Treasures; compassion, frugality, and humility.

The final major religion in China is Buddhism which actually came from India, however still constitutes 15% of the nation's population. Just as with Confucianism, this religion came from the teachings of a philosopher in the 5th century known as Guatama Buddha. Buddhism emphasizes ideas of karma, that everything in life is temporary, and also the Egyptian belief in reincarnation. Meditation and humility are vital tools to accept the suffering of life and find peace within. Another key concept of Buddhism is nirvana, which is a goal of perfect harmony thru enlightenment.

Buddhism is quite different from Confucianism and Taoism thru it's structured path of achieving righteousness. In this sense it is probably more-so a religion than the other two as it requires more spiritual attention. The principles of Buddhism lie in the Four Noble Truths; dukka (suffering), samudaya (origin), nirodha (ending), and magga (the path). The path of liberation is detailed in the Noble Eightfold Path; right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right samadhi. 

Chinese Architecture 

Another very distinctive trait of Chinese culture is their unique architecture which often consists of their iconic arched rooftops. Chinese buildings are often very colorful and have a unique shape to them. This style of architecture has a very aesthetic appeal to it and demonstrates elements of mythology and fantasy. The upward arched rooftops often referred to as flying eaves were built as a means for drainage, however they also demonstrate a symbolic identity of China. Many of China's most impressive monuments, palaces, and pagodas are built with this curved rooftop structure.

Two of China's most iconic landmarks are the Great Wall of China and the Forbidden City. The Great Wall of China was built as far back as the 8th century BC, and continued to expand and be reinforced during China's imperial age. The iconic Forbidden City was built by the Ming Dynasty in 1406 AD, as the new imperial palace located in Beijing. This palace alongside the Great Wall are two of the most visited landmarks in the country. Other iconic monuments include the Summer Palace, the Temple of Heaven, the Potala Palace, and the underground Terracotta Army.

Chinese Arts, Crafts, and Literature

There's no question the Chinese have a heightened sense of artistry just by looking at the aesthetics of their architecture. They demonstrate a great value in aesthetics in merely every category of visual arts, crafts, music, literature, and so forth. For starters consider the text they use, known as calligraphy, it is a very artistic form of writing. Their paintings also celebrate symbolic and mythological meanings, often done so on silk or scrolls. The two main forms of Chinese paintings are referred to as the gongbi (realist detail) and water/ink painting referred to as sumi-e. The ink wash painting gives a more murky and surreal work of art, similar to impressionism.

The artistry of Chinese culture goes beyond their visual arts of paintings and sculpture yet is also demonstrated in their crafts. Consider popular household items such as porcelain, often displayed in glass cabinets referred to as "Chinas". This form of ceramic kitchenware became one of China's greatest exports in the 17th and 18th century. They also are well known for their paper lanterns, hand fans, carved lacquer, folding screens, and gardens all of which demonstrate the finest of Chinese decorative aesthetics.

The aesthetics of Chinese culture is also demonstrated in their literature with many famous works of mythology, folklore, philosophy, poetry, and novels. The greatest works of Chinese literature are often categorized as the Four Books and Five Classics. This includes some of the most ancient writings that contributed to Chinese mythology and identity such as the Book of Songs, the Book of Documents, the Book of Rites, the Book of Changes, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. The Four books are accredited to the philosopher Confucius of which his most famous text, the Analects is included. Other classic Chinese novels include Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also worth mentioning is the philosophical masterpiece by Sun Tzu, Art of War, which I happen to be reading at the moment.

Chinese Sport

Now in the realm of international soccer, the world's most popular sport, China has always had a poor showing. However they have excelled in other sports particularly at the Olympic Games. Since the 1992 summer games they have finished in the top 4 on the medal table and are often right behind the US in total medals. Their hosting of the summer games in Beijing 2008 brought the country worldwide attention and demonstrated their rich culture as well as their many prominent athletes. Although the US beat them in total medal count, China garnished 48 golden medals, the most of any other country at the games.

While the country has produced some notable superstars such as basketball's Yao Ming and they have often excelled in badminton and gymnastics. Their true claim to fame in the field of sports is in the category of martial arts. China is the birth place of many ancient and popular fighting styles such as Kung Fu, wushu, and Wing Chun. This fighting style is more than just a physical combat sport, yet more so an ideology that includes elements of meditation and a state-of-mind. The fighting is done so with careful balance, agility, speed, and a focused state of mind; and should come as no surprise it has a visually aesthetic appeal to it.

Chinese Cuisine

As I mentioned in the introduction above, one of my favorite things about Chinese culture has always been the food. Since I was a kid I have always enjoyed the experience at a Chinese restaurant or buffet. From the decorations, to the relaxing music, the friendly waitresses, and the unique tableware (chopsticks and decor often depicting the Chinese Zodiac). Just to visit a Chinese restaurant is a cultural experience in it's own right, however obviously the best part is always the food.

It often starts with the tea, which is a Chinese staple that was invented by the Chinese as far back as the 3rd century and made popular during the Tang Dynasty (600-900 AD). I myself have always preferred the drink of coffee to tea, but I still can enjoy a tea from time to time. The next phase of a proper Chinese meal, is the appetizer which has a vast array of options. Some of my favorite Chinese appetizers are their hot-and-sour soup, tomato soup, egg rolls, and Crab Rangoon. After this comes the main course and the desserts.

Most Chinese main dishes usually contain a side of rice or noodles with veggies, and a variety of meats and sauce. The sauce is no doubt the defining characteristic and often provides an extremely sweat or extremely spicy combination. Some of my favorite Chinese dishes include the General Tso's Chicken, the Orange Chicken, the Green Pepper Steak, the Sesame Chicken, Sichuan Beef or fried rice. There's no question that Chinese cuisine has become an Americanized enterprise, quite similar to other popular ethnic foods such as Mexican and Indian food.

Movies about China

As an avid film enthusiast I have to end this post with some essential films regarding Chinese culture. Now although most of the films on this list are not Chinese productions they still capture the essence of Chinese culture. All the films on this list are set in China and pertain to some historical or cultural element of the country. If anyone wants to get some understanding of China as I have, I would highly recommend these films.

• The Last Emperor (1987) Pertains to the fall of the Qind Dynasty in 1911 at the hands of the Xinhai Revolution. This film was directed by Bernardo Bertolucci and won an impressive 9 Oscars. 
• Empire of the Sun (1987) Pertains to the Japanese invasion of Shanghai, China during WWII. This great film directed by Steven Speilberg stars the young teenage Christian Bale and John Malkovich and was nominated for 6 Oscars.  
• Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) A Chinese adventure/fantasy celebrating Chinese martial arts and mythology. This was a critically acclaimed film that won 4 Oscars and had some very artistic action sequences. 
• The Painted Veil (2006) Pertains to a love story set in China during a cholera epidemic in the 1920s. The film stars Edward Norton and Naomi Watts and has a very nice musical soundtrack by Alexandre Desplat. 
• IP Man Series (2008, 2010, 2015, 2019) Pertains to the martial artist teacher, IP Man who made the technique of Wing Chung famous and trained the great Bruce Lee. These action films demonstrate some great martial arts action. 

Historical Look: Chinese Civil War

So now turning the page to my final chapter on this study of Chinese history; the Civil War. As I mentioned in the previous post this is a topic I have always been fascinated with, however knew very little about until this recent submersion into Chinese history. The first image that always comes to mind when I think of the Chinese Civil War is the communist leader of Mao Zedong. I also often associate them with Russia's Bolshevik/Communist revolution and subsequent Civil War. However the Chinese Civil War was a much longer and more complicated affair than the Russian Civil War.

For starters the Chinese Civil War lasted for 13 years and was interrupted by WWII, particularly the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 (also known as the Second Sino-Japanese War). This foreign invasion essentially put a freeze on the civil conflict and united China against their agitators. One could make the case that the breakout of WWII severely weakened the Republic of China and ultimately served as an advantage for the Communist Party of China.

But now I'd like to lay out the historical timeline of events following the Xinhai Revolution. It's quite interesting that even after the abdication of the Qing Empire in 1912, the newly established Republic of China was still in disarray for some time. The death of general Yuan Shukai in 1916 brought about yet another Chinese age of Warlords and also gave way to the rise of communism. The Republic of China was not able to fully establish itself until 1928 under the leadership of General Chiang Kai-shek. Yet despite surviving the Warlord era, the Republic of China had an even greater threat with the insurgent Communist Party of China.

Yuan Shukai's Empire of China

During the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, general Yuan Shukai of the Beiyang Army was able to swindle the position as prime minister from the key political leader Sun Yat-sen. Yun Shukai no doubt had better military and diplomatic leverage over Sun Yat-sen which allowed this transition of power. However it also quickly proved to be the downfall of the newly established Republic. From the onset of his leadership, Yuan Shukai governed as a dictator, and eliminated any who opposed him. At the 1913 democratic elections, his greatest challenger Song Jiaoren of the Kuomintang Nationalist Party was mysteriously assassinated.

This led to a period of tension between Yuan Shukai and the KMT who was guided once again by the heroic father of China, Sun Yat-sen. In 1915 Yuan Shukai was able to consolidate his military power and establish the Empire of China declaring himself as emperor of China. However this brought about a 2nd revolution in China led by Sun Yat-sen, known as the National-Protection War (anti-Monarchy war). This war only lasted several months due to the emperor's declining health and his defecting army. In June of 1916 Yuan Shukai died and his Empire was brought to an abrupt end restoring the Republic of China.

Warlord Era

However despite the death of Yuan Shukai, the tension continued to burn, between the conservative Beiyang Government and Sun Yat-Sen's Kuomintang Nationalist government. This eventually gave way to a political division across mainland China often referred to as the Warlord Era. Regions throughout China became controlled by former imperial generals who established themselves as warlords in the likes of ancient Chinese history. Many of these warlords instituted notorious policy, dominated the railways, and would often enlist bandits to join their cause.

The warlords often fought against one another yet more so against the nationalist Republic of China. The culmination of these civil disputes was fought in the Central Plains War of 1929 which consisted of an alliance of warlords against the Nationalist Armies of Chiang Kai-Shek. This conflict brought an end to the warlord era and re-unified the Republic of China. This ultimately replaced the Beiyang government with the Nationalist Republic of China which included a symbolic change of the nation's flag. In 1928 the Republic of China also became recognized as a sovereign state. However despite bringing an end to their warlord problems, they now had a new problem with communist insurgency.

Rise of Communisty Party of China

Following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, the ideals of Marxism and Communism quickly began to spread throughout the intellectual circles of China. The ideals became all the more apparent with the May Fourth Movement of 1919. This protest was organized by college students in response to China's weak standing after WWI and against Japanese aggression. The growing spirit of Chinese nationalism gave way to this New Culture Movement that became the cornerstone of the Communist Party of China. The party became officially established on July 23rd of 1921 with only 50 members.

The party quickly expanded thanks to the financial support of the Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin. They eventually tied themselves with the left wing of the prominent KMT party, of which it's leader Sun Yat-sen called upon their assistance against the warlords. Seeking to reunify China, Sun had hoped an active cooperation with the Communist party (especially their Russian allies) would solidify the government of the Republic of China. However following Sun Yat-sen's death in 1925 he was seceded by the more conservative general Chiang Kai-Shek whom did not want to cooperate with the Communist Party.

The Communist Army played a significant role in supporting the Nationalist campaign against the Beiyang government during the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928. However in one of the most atrocious acts in Chinese history, General Chiang Kai-Shek turned on the Communists during the Shanghai Massacre of April 12, 1927. This political purging was an effort by the KMT conservative wing to eliminate the growing threat of Communism in China. General Chiang massacred 5000 CPC members in Shanghai, while other nationalist leaders waged similar massacres against communists throughout China. From April to May of 1927 nearly 25,000 Communist members in total had been massacred which quickly gave way to the Chinese Civil War.

Mao Zedong and the Communist Insurgency

Following the Shanghai massacres, the Chinese Communist Party began a new military campaign against the Nationalist government in August of 1927. The first of these major uprisings occurred in the city of Nanchang by which the communist forces were able to occupy the city. This marked the beginning of the Chinese Civil War and the establishment of the CPC's military force known as the Red Army. The CPC also made various other unsuccessful attempts to occupy Changsha, Shantou, and Guangzhou. 

In September 7th of 1927 one of the CPC's founding members, Mao Zedong led an insurrection in the southern rural provinces known as the Autumn Harvest Uprising. Although the insurrection was put down this event brought prominence to Mao Zedong, who sought to establish a peasant's army. This peasant's army later became a faction of the Red Army that was vital to the rural campaigns of the Chinese Civil War. By the end of 1927 the CPC had established a stronghold in the city of Wuhan, while the right-wing KMT faction operated out of Nanjing, and the nationalist government was centered in Beijing.

Following the Central Plains War and the defeat of the warlords in 1930, the KMT Nationalist Army was able to focus it's full force against the Communist insurgents. It thus began an offensive campaign known as the Encirclement campaigns to drive out the Communist strongholds from China. This effort was supported by the German Nazi's who were also very against the rise of communism at the time. From 1930-1934 the KMT armies led by Chiang waged four unsuccessful campaigns, however were finally successful in their fifth campaign in 1934. This forced the Communists to retreat further inland in what has become known as the Long March. During this retreat the Communist army was able reorganize under the leadership of Mao Zedong. 

Xi'an Incident and the Second United Front

This historic march lasted for a full year from 1934-1935 and covered nearly 5600 miles. Under the leadership of Mao Zedong the CPC was eventually able to establish themselves in the central region of Shaanxi, however their numbers were greatly reduced during this march(from 90,000 down to 7,000). While things had begun to look quite dire for the Communist Party, the Japanese Empire had emerged as a major threat to the Republic of China. Their invasion of Manchuria in 1931, began a sudden shift of Chinese nationalism fervor, and ultimately took the attention away from the CPC. 

During the early 1930s many KMT soldiers began to disapprove of their civil war against the Communists and felt they should be more concerned about Japan. This ultimately gave way to the Xi'an Incident of 1936 by which General Chiang was kidnapped by his own officers and forced to compromise with the CPC. After several weeks of negotiation Chiang agreed to halt the civil war and unite with the CPC to establish the Second United Front. A few months later in 1937 Japan had begun it's full scale invasion of China, thus beginning the Second Sino-Japanese War and WWII. 

Post WWII phase

During the Second-Sino Japanese War the KMT and CPC alliance was mostly for show, and hardly recognized by either side. Despite their efforts to work together and defend against the Japanese aggression, the tension and infighting still remained between the two parties. The CPC carried out guerrilla efforts against the Japanese forces and the KMT forces during this period. This eventually led to the New Fourth Army Incident of January 1941 by which General Chiang ambushed thousands of CPC soldiers in the central-eastern regions of China. The CPC responded by bringing an offical end to their military alliance with the KMT thus ending the Second United Front.

General Chiang surely was within reason to fear the CPC during WWII, as it was his KMT army doing most of the fighting against the Japanese. During the final phase of the Second-Sino Japanese War in 1944, known as Operation Ichi-Go, the KMT army took on heavy losses. Meanwhile the CPC had withstood the Japanese campaigns thanks to their guerrilla tactics and their numbers continued to grow during the conflict. Thankfully for the KMT they had the United States on their side who saved them from the Japanese and continued to recognize their government after WWII. Mao Zedong and General Chiang attempted to come to agreement terms after WWII, however the civil war still continued to intensify. 

Despite the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the situation grew even worse for the nationalist Republic of China, when the Soviet Union invaded Manchuria. The Soviets were able to liberate the region from Japanese control and hand the territory over to Communist Party and not the national government. By June of 1946 the CPC and KMT had finally cut off any talks of compromise and returned to full scale civil war. By this point the CPC had amassed a grand army with better organization and funding from the Soviet Union. Thru greater communications and propaganda Zedong was able to enlist large numbers of peasants as well as KMT defectors. Also to their benefit was a stream of weaponry they had secured from the surrendered Japanese armies, yet also the Soviets. 

Despite American aid the KMT began showing major signs of war fatigue during the second stage of the civil war, also known as the Chinese Communist Revolution. By November of 1948 the CPC launched a major offensive against the KMT headquarters in Xuzhou, known as the Huaihai campaign. This massive force of nearly 6.5 million Chinese Communist soldiers overwhelmed the KMT stronghold and secured it by January of 1949. This marked a decisive turning point for the civil war by which the Communist Red Army was now in the driver's seat. 

Establishment of the People's Republic of China

Shortly after they had secured Xuzhou, the CPC army marched north on Beijing in their final offensive known as the Pingjin Campaign. This campaign brought the final blow upon the nationalist army and gave the CPC control of the capital city and the North China Plain. In the final stage of the war, against Stalin's persuasion, Mao Zedong waged the Yangtze River Crossing Campaign to capture the nationalist capital of Nanjing as well as the major city of Shanghai. By November of 1949 the remaining nationalist KMT members were forced to retreat to the island of Taiwan. 

By the autumn of 1949 the Communist Red Army had secured China from the nationalist army. Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China on October 1st, 1949 bringing an end to the Chinese Civil War. Despite various minor efforts, the nationalist government was forced to completely relocate it's operation to Taiwan, known as the Great Retreat. To this day Taiwan serves as the headquarters of the former nationalist Republic of China, however it is still not officially recognized internationally. 

The tensions between the KMT nationalist Taiwan and the Communist controlled China, waged on for many more years and still continues to this day. The Americans eventually withdrew their military support of the KMT by 1950, however they later got involved in the Korean War supporting South Korea from a communist takeover. Meanwhile the People's Republic of China were able to return to their economic prosperity they last experienced in the 18th century. By the 1980s with the communist fallout of the Cold War, China transformed into more of a democratic state yet still a nation that favors it's people above everything else.