Historical Study: Japan's Feudal Samurai Age

For the first time ever, I've embarked on a deep Japanese appreciation phase. This is as per usual brought on by a video game, Assassins Creed Shadows. I've had this phase on the radar for nearly a year now since I learned of this release from my favorite video game franchise. The game provides a full emergence into Japan's Feudal Age with an obvious emphasis on samurais and ninjas (also referred to as shinobi). To go along with my video game I've paired some great Japanese themed TV shows, movies, and books such as Shogun. I'll later have posts regarding Japanese culture as well as book and video game reviews, but for now I'm going to focus on some Japanese history.

I've always been interested in Japanese culture and history but have hardly made a deep dive into it yet. I suppose the first interest I had was focused on their WWII imperial period, where they made up a part of the Axis Powers. I've wrote posts about Japan's modern Imperial Age (see Empire of Japan) as well as their economic boom in the 20th century (see Japan's Economic Miracle). This was a very intriguing time of fanatic extremism where some historians regarded the Japanese army to be even more ruthless then the German Nazis. Their soldiers were willing to kill themselves for the good of their empire (known as kamikazes) and simply refused to accept surrender at all costs. It's this extremist mentality that lead to the US decision to drop the nuclear bomb as the ultimate shock and awe event to end the war. 

When you look back at Japan's ancestry with their Samurai roots, you can begin to understand where this extremism derived from. I think I first became familiar with samurai culture from the popular cartoon Samurai Jack and later Tom Cruise's 2003 film The Last Samurai. But I actually knew quite little of their place in Japanese society during the Feudal Age, until the last month now. They were so much more than just great warriors, but considered as highly respected nobles, statesmen, and political leaders. Their military dictatorships, known as Shoguns strengthened Japanese resilience from the 1100s to the mid 1800s. They were able to repel various invasions by the Mongols and fervently resisted Jesuit Portuguese missionaries. This great culture thrived for nearly 700 years until the American influence of the Meiji Restoration occurred. Although Japan never reached the wealth and territorial might of some European nations, the Samurai to this day is considered the fiercest warrior in all of history. 

Heian Period (Rise of Feudal Lords) 794-1185

Much of Japan's early classical history was broken up into various war lords and military clans throughout the island. Throughout this age their primary religions consisted of Shintoism and Buddhism (which celebrated nature and the spirit over a divine deity). This became the core belief that united many clans during the Asuka Period. During the 700s the emperor passed new land reforms to empower noble landowners. These feudal lords were in charge of managing their local territory in accordance with the emperor. Their means of security to fight against lawlessness bandits, became the samurai. The early use of the samurai was more of a humble servant to the landowner, and did not transform into the noble warrior until many years later. 

In 794 AD the 50th Emperor Kammu moved the capital of Japan to Kyoto. He ushered in a new era of reform, known as the Heian Period, transforming Japan from a theocratic Buddhist region into a government with a legal system. Some of these reforms included abolishing peasant conscription and replacing it with local militia that would lead to the establishment of the samurai class. The conquest of the indigenous Emishi people in the northern regions of Japan also marked a major turning point in the development of the shogunates. Samurais acquired much of their traditions and fighting techniques from these ancient people such as mounted archers and the curved swords known as katanas.   

During this age the imperial authority of Japan was divided among various warlords and nobles known as daimyos. The Emperor was seen as more of a symbolic role with divine authority. Some of the most prominent clans were the Fujiwara, the Minamoto, the Taira, and the Tachibana. By the eleventh century the shoguns controlled more land then the government did, and built up great armies of samurais to defend their land. The Taira and Minamoto became the two dominant clans of Japan during this time and eventual arch enemies. Disputes over the throne from 1156-1160 led to the Hogen and Heiji Rebellions and the subsequent Genpei War from 1180-1185. The Minamoto clan finally achieved a decisive victory over the Taira at the naval Battle of Dan-no-Ura to end the war and become the undisputed power of Japan.      

Kamakura Shogunate (Mongol Invasions) 1185-1333

After successfully leading his clan to victory, Minamoto no Yoritomo declared himself first shogun of Japan. He moved his central government from Kyoto to Kamakura (on the outskirts of Tokyo) although Kyoto still remained the busier capital of Japan. Yoritomo established a stronger system of samurai soldiers and police to collect taxes, squash any rebellion activity, and maintain law and order throughout the land. The iconic colorful armor and headgear known as the o-yoroi and do-maru became prevalent samurai attire during this time. Following Yoritimo's death in 1199, his centralized shogunate government weakened as his appointed feudal lords known as shugos acquired more strength in their local lands. 

In 1274 the whole nation of Japan was reunited due to a full scale invasion by the Mongol Empire under Kublai Khan. The Mongols heavily outnumbered the Japanese with their 40,000 soldiers and 900 ships against 10,000 Samurai. However the samurai defended their land with great zeal and were aided by miraculous thunderstorms that became known as kamikazes (divine winds). Despites the Mongol's superior forces and weaponry (which included the first use of bombs and gunpowder in Asia) the first invasion came to a stand-still and the Mongolians were forced to retreat to China. 

However the samurai knew they would return and began to build up their defenses. Diplomacy between the two nations failed when a Japanese shugo beheaded 5 Chinese diplomats. In 1281 Kublai Khan sent a 2nd invasion into Japan, with a much larger force of 140,000 men and 5,000 ships. The Japanese army was once again vastly outnumbered, with only 40,000 men. However thanks to their defensive walls, superior fighting discipline, and another miraculous typhoon they were able to once again repel the invasion. The Mongolians were forced to retreat and withdraw their invasion and word began to spread that Japan was indeed protected by a divine natural force. 

Despite their victory over the Mongolian invasions, the finances of the war took a toll on the Kamakura Shogunate during the 1300s. The relationship between the shogunate leaders and the samurai were fractured due to this loss in compensation. At this point samurai developed a new practice of Zen Buddhism to be one with life, nature, and not afraid of death. In 1331 seeking to restore imperial power, emperor Go-Diago enlisted the support of a shogunate general Ashikaga Takauji to overthrow the Kamakura Shogunate. The Genko War lasted from 1331-1333 and led to the fall of the Kamakura Shogunate and the restoration of imperial power in Japan.       

     

Sengoku Period (Warring States Period) 1333-1568

Emperor Go-Diago's Kenmu Restoration of the imperial throne was rather short-lived and in 1336 the general Takauji captured Kyoto and declared himself shogun. Takauji established his shogunate in the northern district of Kyoto known as Muromachi. Meanwhile Emperor Go-Diago was not prepared to go away quietly and re-established an imperial government in the southern region of Yoshino. This led to a civil conflict known as the Nanboku-cho period where their were two rival governments in the north and the south of Kyoto. In 1392 Takauju's grandson Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was able to establish peace and unify the northern and southern governments. 

With this reunification of the shogunate and the imperial throne, the Ashikaga shogunate became the new centralized government of Japan. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was a very influential leader for nearly 30 years establishing peace throughout Japan as well as with China. However following his death in 1467 civil war returned to Japan due to a feud between two prominent daimyos over control of the Ashikaga shogunate. The Onin War was an intense civil war that lasted for ten years (1467-1477) and completely destroyed the city of Kyoto. As a result of this conflict the Ashikaga shogunate lost much of it's power and Japan entered a period of continuous civil war among various clans for control of the nation. This continuous warring states period, also known as the Sengoku Period, lasted for nearly 150 years without a centralized government.

During this time the samurai were able to elevate their status not just as vassals to their daiymo lord, but to become daimyo noble lords themselves. During this time ninjas (also known as shinobis) from the provinces of Iga and Koka became prevalent spies and assassins hired by daimyo lords. Buddhist warrior monks also came to prevalence during this time seeking to restore Buddhism as the central religion of the nation. Ronins also emerged as samurai warriors without any allegiance to a noble lord. Some of the most powerful samurai daiymos of the era were Uesugi Kenshi, Takeda Shingen, Mori Montonari, and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Despite the continuous warfare, iconic Japanese customs emerged during this time such as ink painting, Japanese gardening, bonsai trees, and their tea ceremonies.     

The Arrival of Portuguese trade and religion (1543)

Quite surprisingly the European discovery of Japan came after they discovered the New World of the Americas. Although in the late 1200s, Marco Polo had discovered the far eastern lands of Asia such as India, Myanmar, Indonesia, Vietnam, and China he never reached the island of Japan. It was thus unknown to the western world until 1543 when a Portuguese merchant ship was blown off course and landed on the island of Tanegashima. The Portuguese thus established a trade partnership with the Japanese introducing new items, most notably firearms such as muskets and pistols. By 1556 the Japanese had purchased roughly 300,000 firearms from Portugal to use in their armies.  

In 1549 the Catholic church sent Jesuit missionaries from Portugal led by Francis Xavier. While the Japanese were first alarmed by these western barbarians, they were also curious of their customs, their large ships, and powerful weapons. The religion of Christianity was very different from their practices of Shinto and Buddhism, however it was all so new and interesting to the locals. There were nearly 150,000 converts throughout the 1550s where it seemed as if the Christian faith was going to spread like a wildfire as it did throughout Europe and the Americas. However by the 1580s new laws were passed by the emperor to prohibit the practice of Catholicism and no longer allow Jesuits missionaries. The daiymos of Japan simply felt this new foreign religion would destroy their proud customs, and eventually banned the religion entirely by 1620.   

Tokugawa Shogunate (The Edo Period) 1568-1868

By the 1560s a new powerful warlord named Oda Nobunaga had emerged with an intention to end the civil wars and unify Japan. Oda Nobunaga had begun his campaign near Nagoya and achieved a decisive victory in 1560 at the Battle of Okehazama by defeating the much more powerful army of Imagawa Yoshimito. Perhaps Oda's greatest move as leader was establishing peaceful relations with the Portuguese to use their firearms and learn of their battle tactics. By 1568 Oda Nobunaga brought an end to the Ashikaga Shogunate when he captured the city of Kyoto. The Azuchi Castle was built in 1579 in Kyoto as the main headquarters of the Oda clan. Nobunaga now controlled much of the southern region of Japan and intended to press further north, until he was assassinated by one of his own officers in 1582. 

Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga as leader of the Oda clan and continued his work to gain full control of Japan. Hideyoshi achieved key victories in the southern and eastern regions of Kyushu and Kanto, including decisive victories over the poewrful Hojo clan. By the 1580s Hideyoshi had become the most powerful warlord in Japan and began a series of strict law reform including prohibiting Christianity, confiscating swords from the peasants while requiring samurais to carry 2 swords, and limiting the power of daiymos. He also freed the Japanese slaves in 1590, deeming them as field commoners and laborers. His ambition reached new heights when he launched an invasion into mainland China in 1592 by invading Korea. The Imjin War was a series of two Japanese invasions of Korea, from 1592-1598 that ultimately ended in withdrawal for the Japanese after Hideyoshi died. 

Following Hideyoshi's death their was another civil war of succession in which Hideyoshi's son was defeated at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 by Tokugawa Ieyasu. This ushered in the Edo Period under the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate that would hold control of Japan for the next 268 years. Tokugawa moved his central government to Tokyo which finally brought about a long period of peace and stability throughout Japan after many years of civil war. Economy and trade began to flourish in Japan during the 17th century, of which Tokyo became the largest city in the world. Crime was dealt with very harshly to discourage any lawlessness, and samurais were given the option to commit suicide, known as seppuku, if ever they were dishonored. Following the Catholic Shimabara Rebellion of 1638, Japan completely outlawed Christianity and took drastic steps to isolate it's country from the outside world. The only nations allowed to trade during this time were Chinese, Koreans, and the Dutch (however they made a rare exception with the English navigator William Adams granting him samurai status).

Throughout the 17th and 18th century, the samurai class were no longer seen as the nations security force yet rather as aristocratic nobles and bureaucrats who still honored the traditional customs of Japan. Meanwhile the culture and economy of Japan continued to flourish thru this time with a boom of infrastructure, agriculture, education, philosophy, as well as the arts and entertainment. The female practice of Geishas emerged during this time as popular artists of song, dance, etiquette, and sophisticated conversation (although often seen as escorts they were not to be considered as prostitutes). The practice of Neo-Confucianism became the central core of the Tokugawa Shogunate dividing society into four occupations: the warrior, the peasant, the artisan, and the merchant. Meanwhile samurais practiced the code of Bushido, "the way of the warrior" honoring their traditional customs thru chivalry. 

However by the mid 1850s, the Tokugawa Shogunate finally began to crumple due to rising Western influence. Most notably was the American intervention, that sought to end Japan's isolation and re-establish trade routes into Asia thru the Pacific Ocean. The Shogunate was unable to confront this strong armed bullying by the United States which upset many of the Japanese populace, most notably the samurai. Seeking to expel the barbarians, the samurais formed an alliance with the Shogunate seeking to restore Japanese isolationism. However in 1868 Emperor Meiiji's brought a devastating blow to the samurais at the Boshin War (much thanks to superior American armaments) which ended the age of Shogunates and brought about a new modern age for Japan.      

Religious Study: History of the Papacy

With the recent death of Pope Francis, I have been suddenly pulled to a fascination with the Papal history. It's strange actually I was watching the documentary Pope: The Most Powerful Man in History just the day before Pope Francis died. I saw this as the closure to my religious biblical phase of the past couple as Easter came to a close. It's also very strange that Pope Francis died the day after Easter. He was in poor health for the last couple years, however still made a public appearance on Easter Sunday. He died on April 21st at the age of 88 years and served as the Bishop of Rome for 12 years. I liked him dearly because he was the first South American pope, from Argentina, a progressive minded leader, but also a sincere humanitarian.  

His ascension to the papacy was almost unprecedented in 2013, when his predecessor Pope Benedict XVI resigned from the seat due to declining health. He became the first pope to renunciate in nearly 600 years since Pope Gregory did in 1415 (due to the Western Schism). Following his resignation Pope Francis was chosen by the Papal Conclave. I remember hearing of the news while I was doing courier work, and was genuinely surprised and happy that the first Latin American pope was selected. His ideology was one of leftist politics, against capitalism, in support of the lower classes, and also social causes such as more rights for immigrants and homosexuals. His progressive agenda was a sharp contrast to the ultra-conservative policies of Pope Benedict.

So now we're currently in an interim period without a pope. The funeral of the Francis just occurred this weekend, and will then be followed by nine days of mourning before the Papal Conclave begins. I honestly have no idea what to expect, but will try to highlight some potential candidates from research. However what I really want to do here is establish a brief historical timeline of the papacy. I know of the most famous popes beginning with Saint Peter, Pope Gregory, Pope Urban, Pope Julius, Pope Alexander VI, Pope Pius, and Pope John Paul II. I remember Pope John Paul II was very popular during my childhood years, and especially admired by my grandma. I'm not quire sure Benedict or Francis reached the popularity of Pope John Paul II, but he also was pope for 26 years. 

I find the pompous of the Catholic Church and Vatican City to be so rich with history. I love the lavish ceremonies, the architecture, the intricate robes and wardrobe, the relics, the service, the music, the liturgy, the preaching, the artistic paintings, and just the tradition of it all. It is the most popular and oldest religions in the world (next to the Jewish faith). I feel the Catholic Church, Vatican City, and the office of the papacy is truly regarded as our greatest beacon of light. To see so many world leaders and followers come together for Francis' funeral is truly sensation. And I believe the pope has played a crucial role in world history since the church was founded. Which is why I'd like to follow the succession of the last 2000 years of the papacy, the rock of the Catholic Church. Some of this will overlap with my 6-part study on Christian history that I wrote in 2012 (see History of Christianity) however this will put more of a focus on the leaders of the papacy.

The Church that Peter Built

Following the death of Jesus Christ, his apostles began their own ministry by spreading his word. This included Peter, James, John, Paul the Apostle, and various others that devoutly followed his teachings. Their travels and letters throughout Europe and Asia served as the early development of the Christian Church. This period (captured in the New Testament: Acts of the Apostles) is believed to have lasted from 30-64 AD, by which all were eventually executed by the Roman Empire as martyrs. Although the office of the pope was not officially established for many years later, Peter is regarded as the Prince of the Apostles and for this reason he is recognized as the first pope 

The Primacy of Peter pertains to his leadership over the other apostles in this defining development of the Christian Faith. He was considered the most devoted of Jesus Christ's followers and their most influential leader. He was also considered a unifier of the branching interpretations, and likely helped organize the foundational framework of the Catholic Church. For this reason he is granted the title of preeminence, with authority delegated from Jesus to rule over the entire church. According to Catholic tradition he received the keys of the Kingdom of heaven, which served as a metaphor for establishing the office of papal authority. 

Early Church Fathers

During these early years of development for the Catholic Church, much of the theology was still being organized. The teachings of Jesus Christ were incorporated into doctrine by his apostles and devout followers. These influential theologians, known as the Church Fathers, helped organize the doctrine of the church, in various writings. Some of these writings are considered Sacred Tradition such as the Ante-Nicene-Fathers, the Nicene Fathers, and the Post Nicene Fathers. The generation of leaders after the age of the apostles are referred to as the Apostolic Fathers. Pope Clement I (88 to 97 AD) is considered the first of these men, who was personally ordained by Saint Peter during his lifetime.

Pope Clement was one of the early significant leaders of the Catholic Church helping bring unity to Christian schisms amongst the Corinthians. He wrote one of the first Epistles as a church father, letters of the apostles that are part of the New Testament biblical canon. Other prominent Apostolic Fathers during this time included Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna, Papias of Heirapolis, and Quadratus of Athens. The men were merely considered bishops however and not granted the title of pope as was Clement. During this time also known as the Patristic Era, the church began to establish itself as the state church of the Roman Empire.

The Church of Rome

It was under the reign of Constantine the Great from 306-337 AD that the Catholic Church became centralized in Rome. The First Council of Nicaea occurred during this period in 325 AD, and served as the first official council of the Catholic Church. It was attended by nearly 200 bishops from Europe and Asia to deliberate over various theologian concepts. Many key concepts of the practice were agreed upon during this assembly such as the divine nature of Jesus and his relationship to God, the observance of Easter, as well as the establishment of the Nicene Creed and canon law. However it's interesting to note that the pope of the time, Saint Sylvester, did not attend the council due to old age. 

In 330 the capital of the Roman Empire transferred to the city of Constantinople where the seat of the Catholic Church became further administered. It is believed that Constantine the Great sought to hand over total authority to the Pope, however this never occurred. Constantine did however completely change the influence of the catholic church thru law and many great constructions of basilicas. In 401 Pope Leo became the first pope to be labeled as "Great" for his theological contributions to the church (also regarded as a Doctor of the Church). This included strong beliefs that the divine nature of Jesus Christ was human and god. Perhaps his greatest state contribution came in persuading Atilla the Hun to not invade Italy. 

Medieval Papacy

During the decline of the Roman Empire the papacy came under the influence of the Germanic Ostrogothic Kingdom from 493 to 537 AD. During this time a first major schism began to occur where two popes were chosen in 498. Furthermore hints of corruption and simony began to infiltrate the papal institution. Theodoric the Great did not interfere in papal matters, however when Justinian reconquered Rome, he became the first Roman Emperor to appoint a pope in 537 AD. From this point on the papacy came under the influence of the Byzantine Empire for two centuries, in which many of their leaders were chosen by the emperor. 

Pope Martin I "The Confessor" (649-655), became the first pope to question the influence of Byzantine authority into church affairs. During this time Rome became a melting pot of Western and Eastern Christian traditions. Pope Gregory I the Great (590-604) played a pivotal role in establishing papal authority thru new administration and weeding out the corruption and influence of the monarchy. He made great contributions to the church in theological writings and helped establish a new calendar and forms of liturgy now known as the Gregorian Calendar and the Gregorian Chants. He also sent missionaries to England to convert the pagans of the north. 

In 756 Pope Stephen II established the Papal States in Italy as it's own sovereign territory free from government control. However they still needed military support, which came from the Frankish Kingdom under King Pepin III. Rome became the new center of these Papal States for the next 1100 years, finally with it's own administration. In 800 AD, Charlemagne further supported the papal states, with the request from Pope Leo III who crowned him as first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Thus while the papacy had it's governing freedom it still had to swear allegiance to the Holy Roman Empire for financial and military support. From 904 to 1048 an age of corruption undertook the papacy ruled by aristocratic Roman nobles, a family known as the Theophyclati.   

The Great Schism and the Crusades

In 1076 a conflict arose between the Church and the Holy Roman Empire, known as the Investiture Controversary, regarding who had the authority to appoint bishops. The controversary began with Pope Gregory VII and went on for nearly 50 years. One of the most notable events of the controversary was when Emperor Henry IV made a walk of atonement to submit to Pope Gregory VII, known as the Road to Canossa. The dispute was finally resolved in 1122 where Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V came to a compromise. In The Concordat of Worms the authority to appoint bishops remained with the church, however they were mandated to sweat allegiance to the crown.    

In 1054 after many years of theological disputes, the eastern church of the Byzantine Empire broke away from the western church of the Holy Roman Empire in what is known as the Great East-West Schism. The schism became official when Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople ordered the immediate closure of all Roman churches in the East. Pope Leo IX responded by excommunicating Cerularius and all those who did not accept the pope as the supreme religious authority. This marked the independence of the Eastern Orthodox Church, no longer swearing fealty to the pope of the Catholic Church. Several differences of Roman Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church are the recognition of the Holy Spirit as an embodiment of God and not Jesus; the importance of Mary, also Eastern Orthodox clergy are allowed to marry. Despite the break-up both factions of the Christian church remained peaceful and diplomatic for the most part. 

The dispute was however incorporated into the Holy Crusades from 1095-1291. Initiated by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, he called the Catholic faith to arms, to reclaim the holy land of Jerusalem under the occupancy of the Seljuk Turks. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the city of Jerusalem was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in 638 AD and remained in Muslim control for 450 years until the first crusade. This was also an intent to reunite the Roman Church with Eastern Orthodox against the growing presence of Muslims in Turkey. Despite their victory in Jerusalem at the First Crusade, the dispute with the Muslims carried on for many more years. The tension between the Western church and the eastern church also reached a boiling point at the Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. 

In 1257 AD due to political instability in Rome, the Pope moved his office away from Rome and into various other parts of Italy. This period known as the age of wandering popes lasted for nearly 100 years, where the papacy sought to stay away from the corrupted aristocrats of Rome. During this time the Papal Conclave tradition began in 1276 by which cardinals gathered to elect the next pope. A string of seven French popes then came to power from 1309-1377 known as the Avignon Papacy, under the heavy influence of the French King. This eventually lead to a Western Schism in 1378 where the French Monarchy sought to establish the papacy in France rather then Rome. Pope Gregory XI however refused to stay in Avignon and returned the papal office to Rome. The dispute lasted from 1378-1417, in which three popes reigned at a time; one from Avignon, one from Pisa, and one from Rome. However in 1414 the Council of Constance was arranged to bring an end to the antipopes and reunify the papacy in Rome by which Pope Martin V became the undisputed pope of the Catholic Church.

Renaissance Papacy

During the early 1400s at the onset of the Renaissance the papacy once again became a driving force in domestic and global politics. However it also became influenced by corruption, nepotism, and even simony (the selling of sacramental services, positions, and items). Powerful Italian families such as the Medici, the Borgias, and the fella Rovere were able to secure control of the papacy thru financial and political influence. Also during this time some of the popes had mistresses and even children, such as Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) one of the most controversial popes in history. Aside from his many mistresses, nepotism, and corruption he famously executed his greatest critic Savonarola. His corruption of power is often credited as the driving force of the Protestant Reformation that occurred in the years to come.

One of the next most famous popes during the Renaissance was Pope Julius II from 1503-1513. He was regarded as the Warrior Pope for his use of a papal military to increase the territory of the papal states during the Italian Wars. He oversaw the establishment of Catholicism in the New World of Latin America. He is also most famous for established the Swiss Guard, the Vatican Museums, the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica, as well as the commission of Michaelangelo's famous paintings in the Sistine Chapel. Aside from these great contributions however he also partook in corruption by allowing indulgences (a way to buy forgiveness of sins) which were used for some of his more ambitious projects.    

Pope Leo X was another example of a corrupt Renaissance pope put in power by the Medici family from 1513 to 1521. He also pushed heavily for indulgences to fund the various papal wars and construction projects. Leo famously excommunicated Martin Luther in 1520 with a papal bull. During the War of the League of Cognac (1526-1530) between France and the Holy Roman Empire, the city of Rome was sacked by mutinous soldiers in 1527 seeking pillage and plunder. Pope Clement VII was forced to go into hiding in the Castel Sant Angelo while the Swiss Guard was obliterated. Although order was eventually re-stablished this marked a sudden power shift, by which the papacy lost much of it's authority to the Holy Roman Empire. The Catholic Church further lost influence when England broke away in 1534 which led to a series of Protestant Wars of Religion. 

The Catholic Reformation

As a response to the growing Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church organized the Council of Trent from 1545 to 1563 led by Pope Paul III. The Council worked to counter the Protestant Reformation and restructure the Catholic Church. The major goal was to weed out the corruption that had taken hold during the Renaissance. It also sought to strengthen their doctrines, leadership, education, and overall internal structure. Jesuits became established as the new religious order to travel and reeducate the world on Catholic principles. Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590) also played a major role in the Catholic Reformation by rooting out the corruption, reforming the church administration, as well as renovating the city of Rome. 

The renovation and reformation resumed during the 1600s in what is known as the Baroque Papacy. This included great works of construction and art as a means to glorify the city of Rome as well as the papacy as the central authority of the church. Despite all these great constructions projects, Rome still lost significant pull throughout Europe, due to various religious wars such as the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). During this time new off-shoots of the Catholic religion were recognized such as Calvinism and Lutheranism. By the end of the 1600s the papacy was no longer a driving force in political affairs and was forced to take a spectator role. France and England emerged as the new key players in Europe, free from papal influence.   

The influence of the papacy was further challenged throughout the 1700s due to the rise of the Enlightenment. New scientific and philosophical breakthroughs began to question the pope's divine power, and even the existence of a god. This was most notably the case during the French Revolution, where Pope Pius VI was imprisoned by French troops for condemning the Revolution and it's radical ideals. During the early 1800s the Papal States came under French control for some time by which Pope Pius VII handed the crown to Napoleon as Emperor of France. The papal states were later restored their independent power in 1814 at the Congress of Vienna.  

The End of the Papal States

From 1846 to 1878 Pope Pius IX served the longest reign ever as pope for 32 years. He oversaw a period of political instability throughout the European Revolutions of 1848 which forced him to flee Rome during the brief Roman Republic in 1849. He then ushered in a new agenda of strict conservatism against progressive ideals of secularization and separating the church from the state. He also presented new theological dogma pertaining papal infallibility as well as the importance of Mary and her Immaculate Conception (a life free form sin). However he also resisted the national social movement of Risorgimento, also known as the Unification of Italy, that began in 1861. The intent of the movement was to unite the various states and kingdoms throughout Italy into one Kingdom. 

In 1870 this national movement achieved it's goal by capturing Rome from the Papal States, then bringing an official end to the Papal States. Rome thus became the new capital of the unified Italian Kingdom taking away the pope's political power over the city. However Pope Pius IX was defiant and did not recognize this claim, yet chose to remain in Rome as a Prisoner of the Vatican. The next few popes to follow also remained in this situation, refusing to accept the newly established Italian state as their political authority. Pope Leo XIII oversaw the third longest reign as pope for 25 years and pushed for further theological concepts of the rosary, the scapular, and the importance of Mother Mary. 

Second Vatican Council 

In 1929 Pope Pius XI was able to achieve a diplomatic solution regarding their political status in Rome with Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini. The Lateran Treaty established the Vatican City as the new sovereign territory of the papacy, free from Italian administration. This was fittingly located amidst all the great Catholic sites such as St. Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, and the Vatican Museums. During this key turning point of independence the Papacy still found itself burdened with the growing influence of Facsist dictators Mussolini and Hitler. Both Pope Pius XI and Pius XII spoke out against the injustice committed during WWII especially the Holocaust.  

From 1962 to 1965 Pope John XXIII called upon major reform in the Catholic Church as an effort to modernize their practice. This brought forth significant reform in the liturgy, moving away from the strict Latin language to the local language. It also opened the door for religious freedom and tolerance of other religions (most notably the Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches). During this period the Catholic Church began to shift itself as more concerned about humanitarian issues (such as peace and poverty) rather that political or state affairs. Pope Paul VI reigned from 1963 to 1978, and was strongly opposed to the Vietnam War, birth control, and oversaw many reforms of Vatican II such as declaring Mary as the Mother of the Church.

In 1978 Pope John Paul II became the first elected non-Italian pope since 1523 and was a strong advocate against Communism. He was an extremely popular pope due to his charity missions as well as his extensive travel, visiting 129 countries throughout his reign (the most traveled pope in history). He was succeeded by Pope Benedict XVI in 2005, the first German pope since 1058. With his conservative approach, Pope Benedict returned some of the traditional aspects of the church. He became the first pope to renounce the papacy since 1415, due to aging health issues. He thus received the title of pope emeritus (honorary pope), when Pope Francis was elected in 2013. Pope Francis ushered in an era of progressive agenda, tolerant towards the LGBT community, and also spreading the cardinal conclave beyond Europe and into other regions.  

Vatican City

The headquarters of the papacy, the curia, and the Catholic Church are located in a very small district within Rome, Italy known as Vatican City. It is it's own independent sovereign state with it's own government, a monarchy that is governed by the pope. With a 2.2 mile border and a population of 882 it is the smallest country in the world. However it is also the most historic and visited regions in the world. That is because of it's rich collection of architecture, libraries, museums, sculptures, and classical art. I was fortunate to visit this location in 2017 with my brother and was very awe-struck by the scale of classical renaissance art on display. 

The impressive St. Peter's Basilica towers over the region, overlooking St. Peter's Square, the Bernini Colonnade (with it's 284 columns), and the Vatican obelisk. Inside St. Peter's Basilica is an impressive dome filled with Renaissance art such as Michelangelo's' Pieta as well as Bernini's Baldachino. Behind the Basilica is a courtyard with administrative pontificate buildings. To the east of the Vatican is the impressive Sistine Chapel, adorned with famous paintings by Michelangelo and Raphael. Nearby is the massive Vatican Museum, one of the largest most visited museums in the world. It houses many artistic treasures such as the statue of Emperor Augustus and many works by Raphael, Caravaggio, and Michelangelo. Next to the museum is the home of the pope, known as the Apostolic Palace (it is the White House of Vatican City).

The region is located on Vatican Hill and once was the location of Roman Emperor Nero's circus. The famous Obelisk was the first major landmark built in 40 AD. Many Christians were persecuted in this region, most notably Saint Peter who was crucified upside down. Rightfully so it became the holy sacred grounds of the Catholics and churches and shrines became erected on the spot. The First St. Peter's Basilica was constructed in 318AD by Constantine the Great built over the tomb of Saint Peter. It was later demolished and replaced by the current basilica in 1505-1626 (a golden renaissance for the Catholic Church). The Sistine Chapel was also completed during the Renaissance, commissioned by Pope Julius II. For most the papal history, this region was a part of greater Rome, ruled by the Papal States. However in 1929, due to the unification of Italy, this new state was formed to give the Catholic Church it's own administrative government. So while the buildings and art are quite ancient, the city itself is still quite young.

Interesting Facts about the Papacy

• There have been a total of 266 popes.
• The pope is also known as the Bishop of Rome, the Vicar of Christ, the Supreme Pontiff, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, the Patriarch of the West, and the Primate of Italy
• The longest reign as pope
• Pope Pius IX (1846-1878): 31 years
• Pope John Paul II (1978-2005): 26 years
• Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903): 25 years
• Pope Pius VI (1775-1799): 24 years
• The shortest reign as pope
• Pope Urban VII (1590): 13 days
  
• Pope Boniface VI (896): 16 days
• Pope Celestine IV (1241): 20 days
• 
  The youngest pope ever to be elected was Pope Benedict IX (1032) at age 18
• The oldest pope to die in office was Pope Leo XIII (1903) at age 93
• Most Frequent Papal Names
• John (23)
• Gregory (16)
• Benedict (15)
• Clement (14)
• Innocent (13)
• Leo (13)
• Pius (12)
• Stephen (9)
• Boniface (8)
• Urban (8)
• There have been approximately 40 antipopes (with false claims to the papacy)
• The longest conclave in history lasted nearly 3 years from 1268-1271.
• 81 popes have been canonized into saints
• A newly elected pope receives a golden ring known as the Fisherman's Ring, which must be destroyed upon his death. 
• The Swiss Guard was established in 1506 as an elite unit of Swiss male citizens between 19 and 30 that protect the pope. 
• Popes by Nationality:
• Italy (216)
• France (16)
• Germany (6)
• Syria (5)
• Greece (4)   

List of Popes

1. 
   St. Peter (30-64): Judea, Israel
2. St. Linus (64-76): Tuscany, Roman Empire, Italy 
3. St. Anacletus (76-88): Athens, Greece
   
4. St. Clemente I (88-97): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
   
5. St. Evaristus (97-105): Bethlehem, Judea, Israel
6. St. Alexander (105-115): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
7. St. Sixtus I (115-125): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
8. St. Telesphorus (125-136): Terra Nova, Roman Empire, Italy
9. St. Hyginus (136-140): Athens, Greece
10. St. Pius I (140-155): Aquileia, Roman Empire, Italy
11. St. Anciectus (155-166): Emesa, Syria
12. St. Soter (167-175): Fundi, Roman Empire, Italy
13. St. Eleutherius (174-189): Nicopolis, Epirus, Greece
14. St. Victor I (189-198): Libya, Africa
15. St. Zephyrinus (198-217): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
16. Natalius (198-199): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
17. St. Callixtus I (218-222): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
18. St. Hippolytus (217-235): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
19. St. Urban I (222-230): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
20. St. Pontian (230-235): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
21. St. Anterus (235-236): Petelia, Roman Empire, Italy
22. St. Fabian (236-250): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
23. St. Cornelius (251-253): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
24. Novatian (200-220) Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
25. St. Lucius I (253-254): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
26. St. Stephen (254-257): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
27. St. Sixtus II (257-258): Athens, Greece
28. St. Dionysius (259-268): Terra Nova, Roman Empire, Italy
29. St. Felix I (269-274): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
30. St. Eutychian (275-283): Luna, Roman Empire, Italy
31. St. Caius (283-296): Salona, Roman Empire, Italy
32. St. Marcellinus (296-304): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
33. St. Marcellus I (308-309): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
34. St. Eusebius (309-310): Achaea, Greece
35. St. Miltiades (311-314): North Africa
36. St. Sylvester I (314-335): Calabria, Roman Empire, Italy
37. St. Mark (336-336): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
    
38. St. Julius I (337-352): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
39. Liberius (352-366): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
40. Felix II (355-365) Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
41. St. Damasus I (366-384): Lusitania, Portugal
42. Ursinus (366-367): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
43. St. Siricius (384-399): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
44. St. Anastasius (399-401): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
45. St. Innocent I (401-417): Albanum, Roman Empire, Italy
46. St. Zosimus (417-418): Messurga, Roman Empire, Italy
47. 
    Eulalius (418-419): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
48. St. Boniface (418-422): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
49. St. Celestine I (422-432): Campania, Roman Empire, Italy
50. St. Sixtus III (432-440): Roma, Roman Empire, Italy
51. St. Leo I the Great (440-461): Etruria, Roman Empire, Italy
52. St. Hilarius (461-468): Sardina, Roman Empire, Italy
53. St. Simplicius (468-483): Tibur, Western Roman Empire, Italy
54. St. Felix III (483-492): Roma, Western Roman Empire, Italy
55. St. Gelasius I (492-496): Mons Ferratus, Algeria
56. Anastasius II (496-498): Roma, Western Roman Empire, Italy
57. St. Symmachus (498-514): Sardinia, Western Roman Empire, Italy
58. Laurentius (498-508): Roma, Western Roman Empire, Italy
59. St. Hormisdas (514-523): Frusino, Western Roman Empire, Italy
60. St. John I (523-526): Sena Ilulia, Western Roman Empire, Italy
61. St. Felix IV (526-530): Samnium, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
62. Boniface II (530-532): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
63. Dioscorus (530-530): Alexandria, Egypt (antipope)
64. John II (533-535): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
65. St. Agapetus I (535-536): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
66. St. Silverius (536-537): Cicanum, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
67. Vigilius (537-555): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
68. Pelagius I (556-561): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
69. John III (561-574): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
70. Benedict I (575-579): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
71. Pelagius II (579-590): Roma, Ostrogothic Kingdom, Italy
72. St. Gregory I the Great (590-604): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
73. Sabinian (604-606): Blera, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
74. Boniface III (607): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
75. St. Boniface IV (608-615): Marsica, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
76. St. Adeodatus I (615-618): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
77. Boniface V (619-625): Neapolis, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
78. Honorius I (625-638): Ceperanum, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
79. Severinus (640): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
80. John IV (640-624): Iadera, Eastern Roman Empire, Crotia
81. Theodore I (642-649): Jerusalem, Eastern Roman Empire, Israel
82. St. Martin I (649-655): Tuder, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
83. St. Eugene I (654-657): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
84. St. Vitalian (657-672): Signia, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
85. Adeodatus II (672-676): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
86. Donus (676-678): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
87. St. Agatho (678-681): Panormus, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
88. St. Leo II (682-683): Aydonum, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
89. St. Benedict II (684-685): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
90. John V (685-686): Antiochia, Eastern Roman Empire, Syria
91. Conon (686-687): Thracia, Eastern Roman Empire, Bulgaria
92. St. Sergius I (687-701): Palermo, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
93. John VI (701-705): Ephesus, Eastern Roman Empire, Turkey
94. John VII (705-707): Rossanum, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
95. Sisinius (708): Rashidun Caliphate, Syria
96. Constantine (708-715): Umayyad Caliphate, Syria
97. St. Gregory II (715-731): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
98. St. Gregory III (731-741): Umayyad Caliphate, Syria
99. St. Zachary (741-752): Calabria, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
100. Stephen II (752): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire Italy - 3 days. Died before taking office
101. Stephen II (752-757): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
102. St. Paul I (757-767): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
103. Stephen III (768-772): Syracuse, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
104. 
     Adrian I (772-795) Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
     
105. St. Leo III (795-816): Roma, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
106. Stephen IV (816-817): Rome, Papal States, Italy
107. St. Paschal I (817-824): Rome, Papal States, Italy
108. Eugene II (824-827): Rome, Papal States, Italy
109. Valentine (827): Rome, Papal States, Italy
110. Gregory IV (827-844): Rome, Papal States, Italy
111. Sergius II (844-847): Rome, Papal States, Italy
112. St. Leo IV (847-855): Rome, Papal States, Italy
113. Benedict III (855-858): Rome, Papal States, Italy
114. St. Nicholas I the Great (858-867): Rome, Papal States, Italy
115. Adrian II (867-872): Rome, Papal States, Italy
116. John VIII (872-882): Rome, Papal States, Italy
117. Marinus I (882-884): Gallese, Papal States, Italy
118. St. Adrian III (884-885): Rome, Papal States, Italy
119. Stephen V (885-891): Rome, Papal States, Italy
120. Formosus (891-896): Ostia, Papal States, Italy
121. Boniface VI (896): Rome, Papal States, Italy
122. Stephen VI (896-897): Rome, Papal States, Italy
123. Romanus (897): Gallese, Papal States, Italy
124. Theodore II (897): Rome, Papal States, Italy
125. John IX (898-900): Tivoli, Papal States, Italy
126. Benedict IV (900-903): Rome, Papal States, Italy
127. Leo V (903): Ardea, Papal States, Italy
128. Christopher (903-904): Rome, Papal States, Italy
129. Sergius III (904-911): Rome, Papal States, Italy
130. Anastasius III (911-913): Rome, Papal States, Italy
131. Lando (913-914): Sabina, Papal States, Italy
132. John X (914-928): Tossignano, Papal States, Italy
133. Leo VI (928): Rome, Papal States, Italy
134. Stephen VII (929-931): Rome, Papal States, Italy
135. John XI (931-935): Rome, Papal States, Italy
136. Leo VII (936-939): Rome, Papal States, Italy
137. Stephen VIII (939-942): Rome, Papal States, Italy
138. Marinus II (942-946): Rome, Papal States, Italy
139. Agapetus II (946-955): Rome, Papal States, Italy
140. John XII (955-963): Rome, Papal States, Italy
141. Leo VIII (963-964): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
142. John XII (964): Rome, Papal States, Italy
143. Benedict V (964): Rome, Papal States, Italy
144. Leo VIII (964-965): Rome, Papal States, Italy
145. John XIII (965-972): Rome, Papal States, Italy
146. Benedict VI (973-974): Rome, Papal States, Italy
147. Boniface VII (974): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
148. Benedict VII (974-983): Rome, Papal States, Italy
149. John XIV (983-984): Pavia, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
150. Boniface VII (984-985): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
151. John XV (985-996): Rome, Papal States, Italy
152. Gregory V (996-999): Stainach, Holy Roman Empire, Germany
153. John XVI (997-998): Rossanum, Eastern Roman Empire, Italy
154. Sylvester II (999-1003): Belliac, France
155. John XVII (1003): Rome, Papal States, Italy
156. John XVIII (1003-1009): Rapagnano, Papal States, Italy
157. Sergius IV (1009-1012): Rome, Papal States, Italy
158. Benedict VIII (1012-1024): Rome, Papal States, Italy
159. John XIX (1024-1032): Rome, Papal States, Italy
160. Benedict IX (1032-1044): Rome, Papal States, Italy
161. Sylvester III (1045): Rome, Papal States, Italy
162. Benedict IX (1045): Rome, Papal States, Italy
163. Gregory VI (1045-1046): Rome, Papal States, Italy
     
164. 
     Clement II (1046-1047): Hornburg, Holy Roman Empire, Germany
165. Benedict IX (1047-1048): Rome, Papal States, Italy
166. Damasus II (1048): Bavaria, Holy Roman Empire, Germany
167. St. Leo IX (1049-1054): Eguisheim, Holy Roman Empire, France
168. Victor II (1055-1057): Swabia, Holy Roman Empire, Germany
169. Stephen IX (1057-1058): Lorraine, Holy Roman Empire, France
170. Benedict X (1058-1059): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
171. Nicholas II (1058-1061): Chateau de Chevron, Holy Roman Empire, France
172. Honorius II (1061-1072): Verona, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
173. Alexander II (1061-1073): Baggio, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
174. St. Gregory VII (1073-1085): Sovana, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
175. Clement III (1080-1100): Ravenna, Holy Roman Empire, Italy (antipope)
176. Victor III (1086-1087): Duchy of Benevento, Italy
177. Urban II (1088-1099): Chatillon sur-Marne, France
178. Paschal II (1099-1118): Bleda, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
179. Theodoric (1100-1101): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
180. Adalbert (1101-1102): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
181. Sylvester IV (1105-1111): Rome, Papal States, Italy (antipope)
182. Gelasius II (1118-1119): Duchy of Gaeta, Italy
183. Gregory VIII (1118-1121): Limousin, France (antipope)
184. Callixtus II (1119-1124): Quingey, Holy Roman Empire, France 
185. Honorius II (1124-1130): Flagnano, Papal States, Italy
186. Innocent II (1130-1143): Rome, Papal States, Italy
187. Anacletus II (1130-1138): Rome, Papal States, Italy
188. Victor IV (1138): Rome, Papal States, Italy
189. Celestine II (1143-1144): Rome, Papal States, Italy 
190. Lucius II (1144-1145): Bologna, Papal States, Italy
191. Eugene III (1145-1153): Pisa, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
192. Anastasius IV (1153 - 1154): Rome, Papal States, Italy
193. Adrian IV (1154 - 1159): Langley Abbot's, Kingdom of England
194. Alexander III (1159 - 1181): Siena, Italy
195. Lucius III (1181 - 1185): Lucca, Italy
196. Urban III (1185 - 1187): Milan, Italy
197. 
     Gregory VIII (1187): Benevento, Papal States, Italy
198. Clement III (1187 - 1191): Rome, Papal States, Italy
199. Celestine III (1191-1198): Rome, Papal States, Italy
200. Innocent III (1198 - 1216): Gavignano, Papal States, Italy
201. Honorius III (1216 - 1227): Rome, Papal States, Italy
     
202. Gregory IX (1227- 1241): Anagni, Papal States, Italy
203. Celestine IV (1241): Milan, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
204. Innocent IV (1243-1254): Genoa, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
205. Alexander IV (1254 -1261): Jenne, Papal States, Italy
206. Urban IV (1261-1264): Troyes, France
207. Clement IV (1265-1268): Saint-Gilles, France
208. Interregnum (3 year period due to deadlock in conclave vote)
209. Gregory X (1271-1276): Piacenza, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
210. Innocent V (1276): Tarnentaise, France
211. Adrian V (1276): Genoa, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
212. John XXI (1276-1277): Lisbon, Portugal
213. Nicholas III (1277-1280): Rome, Papal States, Italy
214. Martin IV (1281-1285): Brie-Comte-Robert, France
215. Honorius IV (1285-1287): Rome, Papal States, Italy
216. Nicholas IV (1288-1292): Ascoli Piceno, Papal States, Italy
217. St. Celestine V (1294): Isernia, Italy
218. Boniface VIII (1294-1303): Anagni, Papal States, Italy
219. Bl. Benedict XI (1303-1304): Treviso, Papal States, Italy
220. Clement V (1305-1314): Villandraut, France
221. John XXII (1316-1334): Cahors, France
222. Benedict XII (1334-1342): Saverdun, France
223. Clement VI (1342-1352): Maumont, France
224. Innocent VI (1352-1362): Beyssac, France
225. Bl. Urban V (1362-1370): Grisac, France
226. Gregory XI (1370-1378): Maumont, France
227. Urban VI (1378-1389): Naples, Italy
228. Boniface IX (1389-1404): Naples, Italy
229. Innocent VII (1404-1406): Sulmona, Italy
230. Gregory XII (1406-1415): Venice, Italy
231. Martin V (1417-1431): Rome, Papal States, Italy
232. Eugene IV (1431-1447): Venice, Itay
233. Nicholas V (1447-1455): Sarzana, Italy
234. Callixtus III (1455-1458): Játiva, Spain
235. Pius II (1458-1464): Corsignano, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
236. Paul II (1464-1471): Venice, Italy
237. Sixtus IV (1471-1484): Celle Ligure, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
238. 
     Innocent VIII (1484-1492): Genoa, Italy
239. Alexander VI (1492-1503): Játiva, Spain
     
240. Pius III (1503): Siena, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
241. Julius II (1503-1513): Albisola, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
242. Leo X (1513-1521): Florence, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
243. Adrian VI (1522-1523): Utrecht, Netherlands
244. Clement VII (1523-1534): Florence, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
245. Paul III (1534-1549): Canino, Papal States, Italy
246. Julius III (1550-1555): Rome, Papal States, Italy
247. Marcellus II (1555): Montefano, Papal States, Italy
248. Paul IV (1555-1559): Naples, Italy
249. Pius IV (1559-1565): Milan, Italy
250. St. Pius V (1566-1572): Bosco Marengo, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
251. Gregory XIII (1572-1585): Bologna, Italy
252. Sixtus V (1585-1590): Grottammare, Papal States, Italy
253. Urban VII (1590): Rome, Papal States, Italy
254. Gregory XIV (1590-1591): Cremona, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
255. Innocent IX (1591): Bologna, Italy
256. Clement VIII (1592-1605): Fano, Papal States, Italy
257. Leo XI (1605): Florence, Holy Roman Empire, Italy
258. Paul V (1605-1621): Rome, Papal States, Italy
259. Gregory XV (1621-1623): Bologna, Italy
260. Urban VIII (1623-1644): Florence, Italy
261. Innocent X (1644-1655): Rome, Papal States, Italy
262. Alexander VII (1655-1667): Siena, Italy
263. Clement IX (1667-1669): Pistoia, Italy
264. Clement X (1670-1676): Rome, Papal States, Italy
265. Bl. Innocent XI (1676-1689) : Como, Italy
266. Alexander VIII (1689-1691) : Venice, Italy
267. Innocent XII (1691-1700) : Spinazzola, Italy
268. Clement XI (1700-1721) : Urbino, Italy
269. Innocent XIII (1721-1724): Rome, Papal States, Italy
270. Benedict XIII (1724-1730): Gravina in Puglia, Italy
271. Clement XII (1730-1740): Florence, Italy
272. 
     Benedict XIV (1740-1758): Bologna, Italy
273. Clement XIII (1758-1769): Venice, Italy
274. Clement XIV (1769-1774) : Sant'Arcangelo di Romagna, Italy
275. Pius VI (1775-1799): Cesena, Italy
276. Pius VII (1800-1823): Cesena, Italy
277. Leo XII (1823-1829): Genga, Italy
     
278. Pius VIII (1829-1830): Cingoli, Italy
279. Gregory XVI (1831-1846): Belluno, Italy
280. Bl. Pius IX (1846-1878) Senigallia, Italy
281. Leo XIII (1878-1903): Carpineto Romano, Italy
282. St. Pius X (1903-1914): Riese Pio X, Italy
283. Benedict XV (1914-1922): Genoa, Italy
284. Pius XI (1922-1939): Desio, Italy
285. Pius XII (1939-1958): Rome, Italy
286. St. John XXIII (1958-1963): Sotto il Monte, Italy
287. St. Paul VI (1963-1978): Concesio, Italy
288. St. John Paul I (1978): Canale d'Agordo, Italy
289. St. John Paul II (1978-2005):   Wadowice, Poland
290. Benedict XVI (2005-2013): Marktl am Inn, Germany
291. Francis (2013-Present): Buenos Aires, Argentina