Book Review: The Historian

I had no intention whatsoever of diving into Romanian history, until I saw this book, The Historian by Elizabeth Kosovo for sale at Goodwill for only 2 dollars. It was like a scene out of a novel, allured by it's mysterious hardback cover as I reviewed it in the store. On the back cover was a dawning of Constantinople, on the side pamphlets were excerpts from the book, and on the inside cover was the map of Europe during the Cold War. I was so intrigued by the book alone that I just couldn't pass up on this deal. It's one of the first books I've ever bought from Goodwill. Although it was slightly used, the condition was still in very good shape. 

However this wasn't entirely some random purchase in the dark. Although I wasn't planning to buy the book on that particular day, I've actually had this book on my Goodreads list for some time now. Historical fictions have always been a favorite genre of mine, and this one seemed right up my alley (especially after many great reviews, and a good recommendation from my cousin Laura). So I decided why not dive into a Romanian setting pertaining to the infamous Vlad the Impaler and his connection to Dracula. I was actually just finishing up my World War II phase with an emphasis on the eastern front and this seemed like the perfect segue to a new phase. I even decided to read Bram Stoker's Dracula as a pre-cursor to Kostova's massive fiction novel. 

The novel was written in 2005, and is a behemoth of a book at 642 pages. The general sense I got before reading it, was that it would be an academic thriller, on par with Dan Brown's Robert Langdon series (or even Indiana Jones for that matter). These are my favorite types of books loaded with great historical insight in the midst of some mysterious adventure. The protagonist must use their scholarly knowledge to unlock the mystery which will save themselves or even humanity. This was definitely the case for The Historian, however it got a little complex with the generational and multi-perspective storytelling. I'll dive into that piece more during my review. First I want to cover the plot synopsis. 

The Plot

The story begins in 1972 Amsterdam, when the narrator (a 16 year old young girl) discovers a mysterious book with the image of a dragon inside it. She shows the book to her melancholic father, Paul who then begins to tell her the story about the book. Since it is a difficult topic for him he shares the story piece-by-piece as he takes his daughter across Europe on his diplomatic travels. Paul begins his story in the 1950s as a graduate student where he first came across this book. He presented the book to his favorite historical professor Bartholomew Rossi to help him make sense of it. At this point Rossi then begins his tale which goes back to the 1930s. 

It is revealed that the book pertains to Vlad the Impaler and the Order of the Dragon. Rossi describes how the book inspired him to do deep research on the mysterious historical character whose body was never found (which often led to associations to undead vampire tales). Rossi becomes obsessed with his research and journeys to Romania. There he visits the Snagov Monastery and discovers that Vlad's body is not there. He then goes as far as Istanbul feeling he is quite close to some great revelation. He is however threatened by mysterious characters and events which cause him to abandon his search. After finishing his tale, Rossi hands his research notes to Paul, with a fervent belief that Vlad Dracula is still alive.

After the two meet, Professor Rossi suddenly disappears. Paul feels quite certain his disappearance had something to do with their discussion since it was the last time the professor was seen. Paul decides to begin an investigation into the book and Rossi's notes, in hopes that maybe he can locate his dear professor. Paul's dissertation is on Dutch mercantile trade and he knows nothing about Transylvania and the history of Vlad the Impaler. However during his studies at a library, fate unites him with an attractive Romanian woman named Helen who is coincidentally reading the book Dracula by Bram Stoker. She later reveals that she is the daughter of Professor Rossi and is specializing in this study, so as to outshine her father. While at the library they are attacked by an evil librarian who bites Helen in the neck. Paul comes to her rescue and fights him off and chases him out of the library. The librarian is then struck dead by a car. 

The story then jumps back to present time back in the 1970s, where the narrator has now grown fascinated with the tale of Vlad Dracula. During her research she also begins to witness mysterious events and characters. She then receives a letter from her father Paul who states that has gone on a quest to find their lost mother. He then continues his story from the 1950s via a series of letters to his daughter. While she reads his letters, she goes on her own quest to locate her father first by traveling to Oxford University in London. There she meets one of Professor Rossi's old colleagues Master James, who also had received a copy of the dragon book of Dracula. Master James sends the narrator away however and appoints his graduate assistant Barley to escort her back to her home in Amsterdam. In reading her father's letters however the narrator convinces Barley to join him on the search. 

The 1950s story continues now from Paul's letters where he recounts his new found alliance with Helen following the library incident. They decide to travel to Istanbul to study the archives of Sultan Mehmed II, who was Vlad's sworn enemy throughout his lifetime. There they meet another scholarly professor named Turgut Bora who also confesses to have received a copy of the dragon book. Turgut joins them on their search of Mehmed's museum where they share great historical insight. At this point they are revisited once again by the same librarian as before who appeared to be killed by a vehicle. This time Helen pulls out a pistol and shoots at him, but the librarian is able to escape. They are all quite convinced now that this librarian is an undead vampire, perhaps even Dracula himself. 

Helen and Paul then travel to Budapest to gather more clues and information on the whereabouts of Dracula's tomb. There they meet Helen's aunt and mother who share their experience of Romanian culture and history. Helen's mother tells the long story of how she meet Professor Rossi back in the 1930s in a small town in Romania while he was searching for Dracula. It was a brief love affair and he eventually left her to return to his studies in London. During this heart-breaking story it is revealed that Helen is the descendant of Vlad Dracula. At this point it becomes clear that Paul is madly in love with Helen and the two decide to get married. However they continue their quest and are further guided by Turgut to visit a contact in Bulgaria who is also knowledgeable on this topic.

Their contact in Sofia, Bulgaria is an elder man named Stoichev who lives in a small cottage filled with books. The man is sincere and passionate about his Bulgarian history and convinces the group that the tomb is likely located at the monastery of Rila or Saint George. They eventually find an escort to the lower crypts of the Saint George monastery where they discover the body of Professor Rossi. He is now an undead vampire, and a victim of Dracula. Knowing what must be done, he bids them farewell before Paul drives a steak thru his heart. Before Rossi dies however he reveals his written account of his imprisonment in a book of Saint George. This tells of Dracula's scholarly library and his plot to disperse these dragon books to top academics (such as Rossi, Master James, Turgut, and Stoichev) so as to preserve his historical legacy. After Rossi dies, Paul and Helen find Dracula's tomb empty and are forced to leave the monastery by the local monks and officials. 

Helen and Paul return to America, with their search for Dracula is still unresolved. However they find solace that they have located professor Rossi, and agree to carry on with their lives. They get married in New York City, find suitable work as professors, and have a child together (the narrator). However after several years Helen is still conflicted with the mystery of Dracula. While visiting a monastery in Saint-Matthieu-des-Pyrenees-Orientales in France she bumps into Dracula and jumps off a cliff so as to flee from him. Paul and the local authorities cannot find her and she is eventually presumed dead. Paul must carry on for nearly 20 years raising his daughter as a widowed father and the unresolved search for Dracula.

It is eventually revealed that Helen survived the fall and went on to continue her search for Dracula. She decided not to return to her husband or daughter, in a state of fear and protection for her family but also from herself (since she had been bitten twice by the librarian vampire). The various perspectives finally come to the present point when both Paul and his daughter separately arrive to the Saint-Matthieu-des-Pyrenees-Orientales monastery at the same time. The narrator is joined by Barley, while Paul is at the precipice of unveiling the tomb in the crypt (hoping to find his long lost wife). Instead the tomb is empty once again, and in the shadows appears the dark figure of Dracula. At this moment a brawl ensues with two other mysterious figures, which are later revealed to be Master James and Helen. During the brawl, Helen is able to use her silver bullet gun to shoot Dracula thru the heart which causes him to dissolve into dust. Helen reveals where she has been the last 20 years and is welcomed back by her husband and daughter. It is believed this is the end of Dracula, however many years later the narrator is presented another dragon book. This ultimately implies that Dracula is still alive recruiting historians or now has a minion doing it for him. 

The Review

I just finished the book today and honestly have mixed feelings about it (this could change after some more reflection but right now it's at a slightly-above-average rating for me). I'd say my biggest complain off hand is the way the story unfolds thru multiple perspectives and time periods. Obviously with a historical setting, you have to have reference to the historical period and in this case a reference to the present period. However this present period unfolds in 3 different present-day gaps; first with the professor's story in the 1930s, then Paul's story in the 1950s, and then the present day story of the 1970s. Each of these 3 time periods continue to return and overlap with one another throughout the story told from different perspectives which can make for a complex linear story. You could probably even add a fourth time period when you consider the content of Vlad during the 1450s-1470s. 

I loved the detailed settings of Amsterdam, Istanbul, Budapest, Bulgaria, Romania, and France. I also thought the historical insight was great pertaining to Vlad's life,  his rivalry with Mehmed II, and the symbolic references to Saint George. I learned so much about Vlad the Impaler from this book, and was never aware that his burial location was a mystery. It's no doubt that the mystery of his burial site, along with his many cruel acts led to his associations with the undead vampire lore. The author Kostova creates an original plot here, of an academic hunt for Vlad's burial site while being hunted by mysterious vampires. It's fair to say that this is more of a Gothic fantasy than a historical fiction. While the details pertaining to Vlad Tepes are historical, the ties to vampirism delve into the realm of dark fantasy (but it's in no ways a horror novel). 

I think Kostova is ultimately expanding on Bram Stoker's work of Dracula. Stoker makes it pretty clear in his book that Dracula is the undead body of Vlad Tepes. However Kostova's vampire is quite different from Stoker's vampire. Kostova's version of Dracula doesn't live in a fancy mansion, yet rather hides in the shadows with multiple tombs. He is driven by academic knowledge and the desire to control the historical narrative. He therefore secretly haunts and recruits other scholars to assist in his library collection that falls in line with his own preservation. So in a rather ironic twist the title of the book is not referring to Professor Rossi, Paul, Helen, the narrator, or the many other scholars met along the way. It is actually Vlad Dracula who is the Historian. He is not some bloodsucking demon, rather an undead scholar who lives in libraries feeding on historical immortality.  

Movie Review: Avatar: Fire and Ash

Yesterday I went to see the 3rd installment of the Avatar series, Fire and Ash, with Benjamin and William. I hardly ever go to the movie theaters anymore unless it's a big special effects production like this one (or Star Wars). I paid a little extra to get the 3d experience and it was very worth it. The 3d experience creates an amazing depth to the film putting the characters in the foreground with an incredible background. Also there were times it felt like we were in the setting, deep in forests, submerged in the water, as if we could reach the plants or the falling leaves. I took my glasses off a couple times to see the comparison and it was very noticeable. Most films I would say the 3d option is somewhat excessive, but in a sci-fi setting like Avatar it really helps you escape into that fantasy environment. Definitely worth the few extra dollars, if you've already made the effort to get the big-screen experience! It's like putting whip cream on an already delicious pie. 

So it should come as no surprise that the visual effects were a homerun once again. A visually stimulating film that is just hard to look away from. Director James Cameron has truly created a groundbreaking series here of science fantasy (that merges sci-fi with fantasy). It is ultimately a battle of technology verses the old natural world. I think this the central theme of all the Avatar movies and it was certainly relevant in Fire and Ash. The story itself had it's moments but certainly wasn't as amazing and magical as the original. All the same actors were back with some new additional characters, but for the most part it felt pretty similar to the 1st two movies.

I'd say my favorite addition to the film series was the villain Varang, played by the Spanish actress Oona Chaplin. She was the fierce leader of the enemy savage clan known as the Ash people. Her makeup alone was quite impressive with red, black, and white war paint. Her eyes were a piercing yellow (which especially caught my attention in the movie trailer). She wore a black-and-red feather crown, long black braided hair, and other various native adornments. She was like a seductive witch, a fierce warrior but also capable of fire magic. Everything about her was exhilarating, from the way she walked and swayed her hips, her sleek body, and the thong she wore. She was like the warrior version of Cleopatra or Medusa in full flight.

The rest of the usual characters were back led by Jake Sully seeking to continue his fight against the humans. His wife Neytiri who also begins to turn on the humans, most notably their adopted son Spider. Their main villain is still the Colonel Miles Quaritch who managed to escape death in the last movie. He is once again on a hunt to capture Jake Sully, who is considered the number one enemy by the human settlement in Pandora. The plot makes a unique twist when Kiri uses her magic of Eywa to save Spider and infuse him with Eywa's energy. This allows him to breath the air of Pandora without a mask. Once Colonel Miles and the humans discover this they seek to replicate his DNA so that the rest of the humans can breath on Pandora.

Jake's second son Lo'ak takes more of a central role in the story development as he further embrace his Na'vi identity. He partners with their reef allies, to convince the giant whales (known as tulkuns) to join their fight against the humans. This is a key development since the humans are still seeking to poach the whales for their precious minerals. There is once again a major water battle that develops towards the end of the film, where the whales save the day. The Sully family must constantly work together to save one another from capture. This is a reoccurring theme throughout the movie, where both Jake or Neytiri are captured, and the other must stage a heroic effort to save them. 

The villainy in the movie was actually quite complex and almost became 3 separate entities fighting against the Navi. First was the human settlement seeking to colonize the planet, collect all precious resources, and essentially eliminate all local natives. Colonel Miles was the specialist Navi avatar hired by the humans to hunt the navi hostiles. However Colonel Miles story grows more conflicted as he starts to care for his son, Spider. He eventually establishes a partnership with the ash clan led by their warlord, Varang. The Ash clan does not believe in Eywa and seeks to establish new authority in Pandora. Varang and Colonel Miles create a romantic partnership both intent to defeat their enemy and establish control of the region. At various times Colonel Miles comes at odds with the human command, and almost begins to go full on rouge native himself. 

During the final battle, the daughter Kiri is able to use her Eywa magic to unleash all the sea animals and air animals to attack (we saw this same thing in the first movies' finale). This time however Kiri was communicating directly with the goddess Eywa who we actually got a brief glimpse of underwater which was pretty cool. Jake and Colonel Miles have another epic hand-to-hand battle amidst a spinning vortex that basically ends in a stalement. Once Colonel Miles sees that he is outnumbered he then jumps into the vortex to what appears to be his final death (but of course this can't be assumed since he has died multiple times now in the film series).

There should most certainly be a sequel for these various reasons. First is that Varang escaped during the fighting, and she has already proven to be a very popular villain. Second is that the human issue has still not been resolved. They will continue to plunder the planet with new military forces unless some agreement can be reached. I don't see this problem going away unless Earth is destroyed. The final piece I'm not fully convinced on is the death of Colonel Miles. We last saw him falling thru this Vortex, but we never saw his body hit the ground, or any concrete evidence that he was actually dead. Since they already brought Colonel Miles back I wouldn't be surprised if they did again, although I think that would start to a get a little lame and repetitive. I think Varang should be the next central villain.   

Historical Study: Vlad the Impaler

So after a little detour into Mehmed II’s intriguing life, I now come to the main focus of this Romanian phase. This will be a detailed biographical study of the infamous life of Vlad the Impaler who inspired the iconic character of Dracula. The interest has come to me from reading Elizabeth Kosovo’s book, “The Historian” which I will later have a full book review on. I’ve heard of Vlad the Impaler for some time, but honestly didn’t know too much about the historical setting. He was not a king or conqueror rather a “voivode (like a prince or warlord) of Wallachia (modern day Romania). He reigned briefly in 1448, then from 1456-1462, and finally in 1475-1476.

His life is a very interesting one, albeit shrouded in darkness and cruelty. Perhaps his greatest claim to fame were his cruel methods of punishment, such as the impalement. However to be fair he was ultimately protecting his land from the Ottoman aggression of Mehmed II. He used these wicked executions mostly as a form of psychological warfare to shock his enemies, especially Mehmed II. He also used other extreme methods of political purges, justice, taxation, and scorch-earth tactics which eventually made him quite unpopular with the nobles and peasants. Despite these wicked acts he remains one of the few leaders in eastern Europe who was able to resist conquest from Mehmed II.

Early childhood with the Ottomans (1431-1448)

Vlad the Impaler also known as Vlad Tepes, was born in 1431. His father Vlad Dracul II was a member of the Order of the Dragon, a chivalric society which defended Christianity. Vlad II become the voivode of Wallachia in 1436 with Hungarian support. Throughout his reign he maintained balance and loyalty to both the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire thru tribute payments. However Vlad II was eventually forced to choose a side and joined the Ottoman invasion of 1438 against John Hunyadi in Transylvania. Hunyadi stood his ground however and continued to strengthen the Hungarian’s resistance to the Ottomans. As a result of Hunyadi’s rise to power the Ottomans increased their pressure on Vlad II, forcing him to swear allegiance against the Hungarians. In 1442 he gave up his two sons Vlad III and Radu as hostages to prove his devotion to the Ottoman Empire. Vlad III was eleven years old at the time.

While his two sons were learning of Ottoman customs, Vlad II continued to maintain a balance between Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Despite various arrangements he was still caught in the crossfire and would frequently switch sides. Despite swearing allegiance with the Ottomans in 1442, he once again supported Hunyadi in 1444 during his campaign at the Crusade of Varna. Despite this however Vlad II was distrusted by both the Hungarian and Ottoman nobles for his constant flip-flopping of loyalty. In 1447 John Hunyadi invaded Wallachia and later captured and killed Vlad II. Some speculation is that he was assassinated by the noble Vladislav II. John Hunyadi made Vladislav II the new voivode of Wallachia, which was to be a Hungarian puppet state. This was of course still heavily disputed by the Ottomans.

1st Reign and exile (1448-1456)

Despite being a prisoner of the Ottoman court for five years, Vlad Tepes remained defiant of their Turkish customs. Nonetheless he was chosen by the Ottomans as the rightful ruler of Wallachia. He was released from his imprisonment and supported by the Ottomans to seize the throne from the Hungarian puppet voivode Vladislav II. An opportunity presented itself in 1448, when Vladislav II accompanied John Hunyadi during his campaign in Kosovo. Vlad III was able to lead a coup for the throne, and quickly attempted to gain support from the nobles. The reign was short-lived however only 2 months before Vladisav II returned from the loss Battle of Kosovo. Vlad was forced to flee back to Ottoman territory.

Vlad eventually made his way to Moldovia to take refuge with his cousin Bodgan II, and his son Stephen. Here he was able to strengthen his allies, and learn more about diplomacy. In 1451 Bodgan II was assassinated at a wedding feast by Peter Aron, causing both Stephen and Vlad to flee Moldovia. At this moment Vlad made a crucial decision to flee towards Hungary and not to Ottoman territory. In truth he hated both sides; the Hungarians for killing his father and the Ottomans for keeping him prisoner for 5 years. It seemed sensible that he would still lean in favor of the Ottomans since they supported his 1448 claim to the throne. However Vlad was eager to change the script, and realigned himself with the Hungarians instead. He ultimately decided that having support from the Hungarians would provide a better chance at Wallachian independence versus a continued vassalage with the Ottomans.

To his surprise, John Hunyadi welcomed Vlad III back to Hungary where he found refuge and began to plot his return to power. Hunyadi had recently lost faith with Vladislav II, the voivode he had personally put in power, due to Vladislav’s open relations with the Ottomans. This was the same flip-flopping tendencies that made Hunyadi oust Vlad II in 1447. Hunyadi therefore began to support and mold Vlad III as the new rightful claimant to the Wallachian throne. During this time Vlad III continued to strengthen his allies and establish a firm stance of anti-Ottoman fervor.

2nd Reign (1456-1462)

By mid-1456 Vlad III amassed a strong force with the support of Hunyadi to mount his 2nd coup against Vladislav II. He invaded from Transylvania and initiated raids and skirmishes throughout the Carpathian mountains. He eventually met Vladislav face-to-face near Targoviste and challenged him to single combat for the throne. Vlad III was able to kill Vladislav in the combat, and after a few weeks of fighting he had secured the throne of Wallachia. He quickly consolidated power by purging all his political opponents, especially the noble Hungarian boyars that arranged the death of his father. He invited many of these nobles to an Easter feast where he later had them all executed via impalement. This is considered his first use of the terrible impalement method which would later define his cruel reputation.

Once Vlad had consolidated power he continued to pay tributes to both the Hungarians and the Ottomans to keep the peace for some time. However he once again lost favor with the Hungarians after he killed many German-Saxon nobles and merchants. He implemented a harsh new code-of-law with heavy taxation and raided villages in Transylvania that were not completely loyal to him. He once again used his wicked methods of impalement as a form of judicial punishment to instill fear to all those who opposed him. His violent raids in the Saxon towns of Brasov and Sibiu were most noteworthy of his bloodthirst. It is estimated that he had several thousands of German-Saxons executed by various means (mostly impalement) from 1457-1461. According to legend he had a first wife during this time who committed suicide by jumping from the castle walls. It is believed she gave birth to Vlad’s son Mihnea the Bad before she died.

Conflict with Mehmed II (1461-1462)

Perhaps Vlad’s greatest claim to fame is his open defiance against the great Ottoman conqueror, Mehmed II. In 1461 Vlad openly defied the sultan, by refusing to pay him tribute. He made this intent crystal clear, when he executed Mehmed’s emissaries by nailing their turbans to their heads. Anticipating a response, Vlad began a war campaign into Ottoman territory south of the Danube River (primarily in Bulgaria). It is estimated he killed close to 20,000 Ottomans during these raids from 1461-1462. These raids infuriated Mehmed, who decided to organize a force of 150,000 men to conquer Wallachia (considered his second largest army behind the one that conquered Constantinople).

Vlad pulled back from Bulgaria to defend his homeland of Wallachia against the massive Ottoman army. He famously used scorch-earth tactics, which devasted his own land in order to slow the enemy. On June 1462 he launched his legendary Night Attack at Targoviste with an army of 30,000, with an intent to kill Mehmed himself. Mehmed was able to escape, but the attack was effective in causing great disarray and panic among the Ottoman army. It was here in Targoviste where Vlad coordinated his most shocking display of horror known as the Forest of the Impaled. Nearly 20,000-25,000 Ottoman prisoners were impaled by stake (which must have taken weeks to prepare logistically). The psychologic effect of this display served it’s purpose however when Mehmed witnessed it. It surely must have been like a scene out of some hellish horror movie. Fields of scorched fire and thousands of dead bodies pieced by giant wooden stakes.

Mehmed was so horrified by the scale of death, that he decided to abandon his campaign. He however appointed Radu the Handsome (Vlad’s brother) to continue the fight and lay claim to the throne. Vlad’s popularity among the Wallachian nobles quickly went into a freefall due to his scorched-earth tactics. Furthermore many found his methods to be far too cruel. Radu on the other hand quickly gained influence with support from the Ottoman empire. He was able to bribe many of the nobles and used his superior military and financial resources to eventually drive Vlad out of Wallachia. Vlad turned to Hungary’s king Matthias Cornivus for support, but instead Cornivus had Vlad arrested for his atrocities. The imprisonment of Vlad was also to be used as political leverage with the Ottoman Empire. Radu the Handsome became the new voivode of Wallachia, fully in support of the Ottoman Empire.

Imprisonment in Hungary (1462-1475)

Vlad was first imprisoned in the fortress of Alba Iulia in Transylvania under harsh conditions. He was a political prisoner and he was likely kept in the lower cells with the other common criminals. However this was only for several weeks until he was relocated to the fortress of Visegrad in Hungary. During this time he was treated as more of a noble prisoner, with some freedom, but still confined to the fortress grounds. This is considered a very mysterious period for Vlad where no historical documents or records are kept on his dealings from 1462 to 1475. It is believed he eventually did find favor with Cornivus, who even arranged a political marriage between Vlad and his cousin Ilona Szilagyi. Vlad remained prisoner in Hungary for nearly 12 years (almost the majority of his adult life). 

By 1475 Stephen of Moldovia had risen to prominence and achieved several great victories against the Ottomans, most notably at the Battle of Vaslui. He was thus able to convince Cornivus to release his cousin Vlad, so that he could reclaim Wallachia and join him in a campaign against the Ottomans. By 1476 Vlad began his campaign to retake the throne of Wallachia which was now controlled by Basarab Laiota. Vlad was supported by both Hungary and Moldovia as he marched into Transylvania. He once again resorted to his familiar tactics of night-raids, scorched earth, and more impalements against the Ottomans. Basarab was eventually forced to flee and Vlad returned to the Wallachian throne for his third reign in the autumn of 1476.

Third Reign and Death (1475-1476)

Despite coming to power with the support of Hungary and Moldovia, Vlad is unable to win the loyalty of the Wallachian nobles. They distrust him due to his previous reign and his harsh methods of punishment. Furthermore the tides of fortune quickly turn when Stephen suffers a terrible defeat at the hands of Mehmed in the Battle of Valea Alba. Stephen is forced to retreat and loses much influence in the region. This allows Basarab to lead an invasion into Wallachia with Ottoman support to take back his throne from Vlad. In December of 1476, Vlad’s small force cannot match Basarab’s greater army, and he is killed during the fighting. His reign lasted only two months and Basarab returned to the throne of Wallachia. The exact details and location of Vlad’s death are unclear, but it is believed he was killed in Snagov (either during the fighting against the Ottoman soldiers or possibly assassinated by his own noblemen). 

According to legend Vlad’s head was removed by the Ottoman soldiers and sent to Mehmed as proof of his final defeat. It was believed his body was buried at the Snagov Monastery however excavations could never officially verify this. Other speculations are that he was buried in the Comana Monastery, but still with no concrete evidence. This mystery of his final resting place has led to the famous depiction of him as an undead vampire seeking vengeance on the living. It would certainly fall in line with his darker methods of punishment. However aside from his wicked cruelty, there is not any historical evidence that suggests he was involved with occultism, witchcraft, or dark mysticism. This is no doubt where folklore and fiction (such as the book I am reading) have taken liberties in an attempt to connect the dots between Vlad and Dracula. It’s a fair pursuit, since Vlad was without question one of the darkest yet most fascinating figures in history.

Historical Study: Mehmed's Greatest Rivals

While there can be no question of Mehmed’s greatness, those who resisted him can also be considered as great heroes of their own respected nations. These leaders were defiant in the face of conquest such as the great John Huynadi (Hungary), Vlad the Impaler (Romania), Skanderberg (Albania), Mathius Cornivus (Hungary), and Stephen the Great (Moldovia). Even Constanine XI (Byzantine Empire) who although fell, achieved legendary status for his defiant resistance against the Ottoman siege of Constantinople. His final stand was truly a great moment of death and glory (like something right out of the movies). In this section I’d like to highlight these famous leaders who were able to repel Mehmed’s campaigns of conquest. This group of iconic rivals is what makes the 1450s-1460s such an intriguing period in world history.

John Hunyadi- (Kingdom of Hungary)- 1456

During his campaign against Serbia, Mehmed II sought to strike at his greatest threat in Eastern Europe, the Kingdom of Hungary. The fortress of Belgrade in central Serbia, was considered the gateway into Hungary and of great strategic importance for Mehmed. It was also a vital location to control access to the Danube River in the Balkans. The Kingdom of Hungary found itself in a vulnerable position at this time due to instability under the youthful king Ladislaus V. Mehmed was aware of those and saw it as the perfect opportunity to press his advantage and drive straight for Belgrade.

The de-facto leader of the kingdom at that time was the military statesman John Huyandi. He was no stranger to war with the Ottomans, and had served in various battles prior to this one. He resisted Ottoman advances in Serbia at the Battle of Semendria (1439), led a victorious campaign in Romania during the Battle of the Iron Gate (1442), achieved another victory at the Battle of Nish (1443), and barely escaped at the Battle of Varna (1444), and the Second Battle of Kosovo (1448). By 1446 he became a governor for his valiant military leadership to help oversee Hungarian political affairs. The looming threat was always the Ottoman Empire however, and when Mehmed began his Serbian campaign in 1454, John Hunyadi was tasked with the defenses of the kingdom.

By July of 1456 Mehmed arrived with a massive army of 80,000 soldiers, including janissaries and heavy artillery. The walled city of Belgrade had approximately 35,000 Hungarian soldiers led by John Hunyadi, as well as some Christian crusader factions. The scale was similar to Constantinople, and Mehmed began with a heavy bombardment of the walls as well as a naval blockade of the Danube River. Hunyadi was able to break the blockade with a daring river assault. After several weeks of bombardment there were notable gaps and breaks in the wall, however the rubble was still impassable.

On July 21-22nd Mehmed personally led the final assault on the walls, but the charge was repelled by Hunyadis’ force. In turn Hunyadi led a bold counterattack outside his walls by attacking the Ottoman trenches and artillery. Mehmed was wounded during this fight, which ultimately caused him to retreat and abandon the siege of Belgrade. It was his first major defeat and marked a major moral boost for the Christian states thanks to the brave leadership of Hunyadi. In a cruel twist of fate however, despite this glorious victory for Huynadi he died several months later due to a plague. His son Matthias Corvinus later became king of Hungary in 1458 and reigned for 32 years.

Vlad the Impaler (Wallachia)- 1456-1462

Now we come to the crux of the era pertaining to one of histories most villainous figures, Vlad the Impaler. Mehmed’s feud with Vlad the Impaler is probably the 2nd most famous chapter of Mehmed’s intriguing life, after the Fall of Constantinople. I intend to later make a deeper dive on Vlad the Impaler so won’t go into too much detail here. However I do want to highlight the vital role Vlad played in resisting Ottoman conquest of the Romanian region of Transylvania. While there can be no question that Vlad’s methods were sinister, he was ultimately serving a greater purpose in defending his territory against invaders.

By 1417 Wallachia became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and was expected to pay tribute. Wallachia’s allegiance frequently went back-and-forth from the Ottomans to the Hungarians, most notably by Vlad’s father, Vlad II. However in 1447 Hungarian leader, John Hunyadi grew tired of Vlad II’s instability, invaded Wallachia, and assassinated Vlad II. His son Vlad III fled to the Ottoman Empire and thus found favor with them in the early part of his life. With support of the Ottomans, Vlad III was able to briefly return to power in 1448, however he was quickly ousted again by the Hungarians that same year. After Hunyadi’s death in 1456, Vlad III regained power in Wallachia to serve as Voivode (like a warlord).

During the early portion of Vlad III’s reign he continued to pay tribute to Mehmed, as a means to buy time and consolidate his power. Once he felt strong enough, in 1461 he suddenly turned on the Ottoman Empire in the ultimate act of defiance. Vlad took this a step further by waging a military campaign on Ottoman territory in Bulgaria. It was here that he conducted terrible massacres, torture, scorched-earth tactics, and his infamous impalements as a strong message to Mehmed. In 1462, Mehmed launched a campaign into Romania to squash this resistance. However in response Vlad led a bold night attack on Mehmed’s encampment in Targoviste, seeking to assassinate the Ottoman sultan. Mehmed was able to escape and left Wallachia due to sheer shock from the impalements, but also a lack of resources from Vlad’s scorched earth tactics.

Although Vlad was successful in repelling Mehmed’s campaign, his army suffered heavy losses and much of his territorial resources were now destroyed by his own sabotage. He quickly lost popularity within Wallachia and turned to Hungary for support. However Matthias Corvinus had grown tired of Vlad’s cruelty and had him arrested. Vlad was imprisoned in Hungary for 12 years while his brother Radu the handsome took over as the new leader of Wallachia. In 1475 Vlad was finally released with the support of Stephen the Great of Moldovia to join him on a campaign against the Ottomans. Vlad once again briefly became leader of Wallachia but died shortly after in battle against the Ottomans. His head was later sent to Mehmed as proof of his death.

Skanderberg (Albania) 1455-1478

After the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the Ottomans began their influence over the region of Albania. Once the stronghold of Kruje was captured in 1415, the Ottoman Empire essentially annexed this territory and established administrative districts. Around this time the young noble Gjergj Kastrioti was sent to the Ottoman Court to learn their customs as a diplomatic gesture. Kastrioti received military training and quickly climbed the Ottoman ranks to be known as “Skanderberg”. He even led various military campaigns on the side of the Ottomans such their campaigns into Anatolia, the Balkans, and against the Hungarians. In 1443 he found himself on the losing side against the Hungarians under John Hunyadi at the Battle of Nis. This Christian victory demonstrated the vulnerability of the Ottoman Empire. It was the perfect time for Skanderberg to defect and return to his homeland of Albania. He had made up his mind at this point to turn on the Ottomans just as Vlad the Impaler had done.

Within days of his return to Albania, Skanderberg seized the Ottoman-controlled fortress of Kruje to reclaim it as his own. He then called upon other regional “Albanian” nobles to unite and establish the Legion of Lezhe in 1444. Skanderberg was chosen as their leader, to defend the region from Ottoman conquest. Shortly after Skanderberg began a guerilla campaign against Ottoman positions achieving many victories from 1444-1451. He even defeated the Venetians over a territorial dispute in 1447-1448. Skanderberg’s fame quickly spread throughout the Balkan region, as they considered him a Christian hero. This allowed him to gain support from the wealthy merchant republics of Naples and later Venice.

During Skanderberg’s early rise to power in Albania, Mehmed II was preoccupied with his military campaigns in Turkey. After his monumental victory at Constantinople in 1453, he turned his full attention towards the Balkan region. By 1455 as Mehmed launched his Serbian campaign he also began attacks on Skanderberg in Albania. However Skanderberg was able to resist the attacks thanks to solid fortifications and ambush tactics. In 1460 Skanderberg stepped away from leading the Albanian defenses to support his ally in Naples. During this Italian Expedition he came to the aid of Alfonso of Aragon who was facing political insurgency. After a year in Italy, Skanderberg returned to Albania to continue his military command. As the Ottoman-Venetian war broke out in 1463 he sided with the Venetians since they both shared a common enemy.

In 1466, Mehmed II personally led a major offensive into Albania to confront Skanderberg. He built a fortification in the Albanian city of Elabsan to organize his attack (just as he did with the Roumeli Hissar Fortress in Constantinople). Mehmed marched with a powerful army of 100,000 soldiers seeking to crush Skanderberg’s resistance and secure the Adriatic seacoast. However Skanderberg once again was resilient in the face of heavy opposition. He continued to use his guerilla tactics, fortification defense, scorched-earth tactics, and frequent retreats. Thus Mehmed could never deliver a crushing blow to Skanderberg’s forces. In 1467 Skanderberg led a heroic counterattack against the invading Ottoman army near Elbasan inflicting heavy casualties. He however suffered a similar fate as John Hunyadi and died a year later in 1468 due to fever. Mehmed eventually conquered Albania in 1478, but was never able to do it while Skanderberg was in power. It is this reason that he is considered to this day as the national hero of Albania.

St. Stephen the Great (Moldavia)1473-1481

In 1451 the King of Moldovia Bodgan II was brutally murdered by his brother Peter III of Aaron in a conspiracy to take the throne. Bodgan’s son and rightful heir Stephen fled into Hungary, and eventually found refuge with his cousin Vlad the Impaler in Wallachia. In 1456 under the leadership of Peter Aaron, Moldovia became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire. A year later Stephen returned to his home nation with the support of Vlad to reclaim his rightful throne. A civil war ensued where Stephen was able to defeat Peter (with the support of the Wallachian army) at the Battle of Doljesti and the Battle of Orbic. Stephen quickly purged his dissidents, while Peter Aaron fled into exile in Hungary.

Once Stephen was able to consolidate his power he began a military campaign with Ottoman support against the Kingdom of Poland (1460-1463) and then the Hungarian Kingdom (1462-1467). He failed to capture the seaport of Chilia (modern day Ukraine) however was able to resist invasions from the Polish and Hungarians. He decisively defeated Matthius Corvinus at the Battle of Baia (1467) which gave him some autonomy and great reputation as a military leader. Peter Aaron mounted an offensive in 1470 with Hungarian support but he was soundly defeated and executed (thus completing Stephen’s vengeance over the man who murdered his father).

Stephen continued to strengthen his position for some time in Moldovia, before he decided to turn on the Ottoman Empire (just as Vlad and Skanderberg had done). This was mostly due to increased Ottoman pressure and higher tribute payments. Once Stephen stopped paying tribute to Mehmed, he quickly built up his defenses anticipating a military response. Mehmed organized his military response by appointing Hadim Suleiman Pasha to lead an army of 60,000 to conquer Moldovia. Stephen however used scorch-earth tactics to disrupt the Ottoman advance. Both military faces finally came head on at the Battle of Vaslui in 1475. Stephen led an army of 30,000 thru heavy fog and ambush attacks to achieve one of his greatest victories. Pasha was forced to retreat, and Mehmed was shocked by this Moldavian victory. Stephen was declared Athleta Christi by Pope Sixtus IV “The Champion of the Church”. 

Historical Study: Conquests of Mehmed II

As I continue my deep dive into the late Middle Ages of Romania, it’s hard to ignore the influence of the mighty Ottoman Empire. I eventually intend to do a full biographical study on the famous figure of Vlad the Impaler (much inspired by the book The Historian). But first I need to better understand the setting and it’s surrounding players. There were so many great historical leaders and figures in Eastern Europe during this time. Of course there’s the most famous Vlad the Impaler, who was supported by other great leaders such as John Hunyadi, Matthias Corvinus, Stephen the Great, and Skanderberg. All united in their opposition against the great Ottoman conqueror Mehmed II.

When you think of great historical conquerors some of the first names that come to mind are Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Julius Caesar, or Napoleon. However it seems like names such as Cyrus the Great, Timur, or Mehmed II are sometimes overlooked perhaps due to their eastern influence. I’ve yet to really see a great Hollywood Biopic epic production that covers the lives of these intriguing eastern conquerors (compared to the western conquerors). Nonetheless I confess that I have just recently discovered the magnitude of Mehmed’s conquests. Sure I have written about the famous 1453 Siege of Constantinople many times now that established Mehmed’s glorious legacy. But I was not aware of the many more conquests he achieved throughout his 30-year tenure to expand the Ottoman Empire into a world power in the east.

The Fall of Constantinople is often considered a historical turning point for many reasons. Not only did it mark the end of the Byzantine Empire and the beginning of the Ottoman Empire. It marked the end of the middle ages and the dawn of the early modern period, the Renaissance and the Age of Exploration. The Ottomans quickly gained great wealth from the city’s booming trade, as well as a significant military advantage. They transformed the city into Istanbul where it became their cultural center of trade and the gateway from Europe to Asia. From here Mehmed II was able to continue his military campaigns of conquest for the next 30 years to expand the Ottoman Empire. What is most admirable about Mehmed is that he would often joined his soldiers in battle, similar to Alexander the Great.

Conquest of the Byzantine Empire (1453)

I’ve written about the decisive Battle of Constantinople various times now (see link), but not so much on the campaign leading up to it. This was to become Mehmed II’s crowning achievement, and it was actually one of his first conquests. Constantinople was the capital and heart of the mighty Byzantine Empire that controlled much of the Eurasian bridge along the Mediterranean from Eastern Europe, the Balkans, Anatola, Levant, and northern Africa. The Byzantine Empire had been the undisputed power of this region for the past thousand years since the fall of the Roman Empire.

However as is the case for most vast empires that are far too stretched, portions on the outskirts began to slowly crumble and whither away. This first began in 1071 when they lost the Anatola region to the Seljuk Turks. This continued throughout the 1200s, with further fragmentation of states breaking away such as the Latin Empire, Empire of Nicea, and Empire of Trebizond. The Italian city states of Venice and Genoa also began to rise to prominence. Meanwhile by 1299 Osman I united several Turkish tribes to break away from the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. This marked the beginning of the Ottoman Empire as it quickly began to overtake the Seljuk empire and expand across Turkey.

By 1299 the Ottomans began their military campaign against the Byzantine Empire led by Osman. They achieved a crucial victory at the Battle of Bapheus in 1302 and captured the city of Bursa in 1326 to make it their new capital. Under Orhan I they began their campaign into Europe achieving victories in Gallipoli, Kosovo, and Nicopolis. In 1422 Murad II led the first siege of Constantinople which was unsuccessful due to the impenetrable walls of the city. By 1444 Mehmed II became sultan and established a new strategy to conquer Constantinople. He essentially began to surround the city, by cutting off Byzantine supply lines in Thrace and Anatolia. He also constructed the Roumeli Hissar Fotress on the Bosphorus strait about 4 miles north from the walled city. This fortress would serve as his command center and shipping lane during the assault on the city.

However even though Mehmed controlled the supply lines and had the superior force this meant nothing if they could not penetrate the Theodosian Walls (which had repelled attacks for over 800 years). This was of course the main reason the 1st siege failed under Murad II. Mehmed’s greatest military tactic was the use of gunpowder cannons. While gunpowder had been around for a couple hundred years this was the first major use of cannon weapons. Mehmed II commissioned massive bombard guns from the famous Hungarian engineer Orban. These modern weapons (such as the Dardanelles Gun) could fire massive balls of stone that weighed nearly 700 pounds. This would forever change warfare, thus bringing an end to the Medieval era and the dawn of the early modern period. Swords and arrows now became futile in the face of guns.

As the siege began on April 6 the Byzantine defenders were most likely horrified at the force that stood outside their walls (reminds me of the assault on Minis Trith in Return of the King). 100,000 Ottoman soldiers with their elite Janissaries, a naval blockade of 100 ships, and the massive bombard guns. The thunderous roar of the cannons shattering walls, surely would break any soldier’s spirit. However their leader Constantine XI was resilient and defiant to the end. After 53 days of bombardment, the famous Theodosian Walls were finally breached. On May 29th the Ottoman army stormed into the streets of Constantinople. Constantine XI himself made a heroic final stand by charging at the enemy but was quickly killed in the fighting. This marked an end of the siege and the fall of Constantinople. At the age of 21 Mehmed II had already conquered the capital of the world.

Conquest of Serbia (1454-1458)

The Ottomans had turned their attention towards Serbia as far back as the mid 1300s. Dusan the Mighty established the Serbian Empire in 1346, as an expanded territory that included Kosovo, Montenegro, Bosnia, Macedonia, Albania, and the northern portion of Greece. They had become a major growing threat alongside the Byzantine Empire in the Balkan territory. The Ottomans intended to control the region and achieved their first major victory at the Battle of Maritsa in 1371, which marked the collapse of the Serbian Empire. However due to limited resources and fragmented states the Ottomans could not consolidate the area. Instead the Serbian Empire evolved primarily into the principality of Moravian Serbia. The Ottomans once again waged war against the region at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Despite being one of the largest battles in medieval history it was ultimately inconclusive and resulted in the death of the Ottoman sultan Murad I.

Following the Battle of Kosovo, Serbia eventually became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire requiring tributes. In an effort to become an independent state again the Moravian principality dissolved and aligned itself once again with the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1402 the Serbian Despotate was established which briefly allowed them some partial independence (however they still had to pay tributes to both Hungary and the Ottoman Empire to avoid conquest). Following the fall of Constantinople a sudden power vacuum began to unfold within the Balkan territory pinning the Kingdom of Hungary against the Ottoman Empire. The Serbian Despotate began to align itself much more with Hungary and even stopped paying tribute to the Ottomans.

In 1456 Mehmed intended to wage war on Hungary by invading the city of Belgrade. However the city was well defended by the regent John Hunyadi who was able to repel the attack. Mehmed suffered injuries from this battle and was forced to retreat to Bulgaria, leaving many cannons behind. Mehmed Eventually regrouped and turned his attention to the Serbian Despotate in 1458, seeking to conquer the Balkan territory. He led his army along the Danube river capturing key fortresses and towns within the Serbian Despotate. By the time Mehmed’s army marched at the capital of Smederevo, the Despotate had undergone political collapse from within. Many of the nobles and key leaders fled to Bosnia or Hungary and the city was essentially left defenseless. By 1459 Mehmed completed his conquest of the Serbian region, by annexing the Despotate into the Ottoman Empire.

Despotate of Morea (Peloponnese peninsula) 1460

Following the collapse of Constantinople, Serbia, and Athens in 1456, one of the last remaining strongholds of the Byzantine Empire was the Greek islands known as the Despotate of Morea (present day Peloponnese). Morea quickly found themselves in a very vulnerable position and turned to the western Italian states for support (Venetians, Genoese, and Papal States). However the region was also in constant civil turmoil between the two ruling brothers, Thomas and Demetrios Palaiologos. Following his conquest of Serbia, Mehmed decided to turn his attention to Morea, especially since they refused to pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire. In 1460 Mehmed marched his army into the heart of the Peloponnese island, fairly unchecked. The capital city of Mystras was briefly sieged and lasted only few days until falling to Ottoman control.

Black Sea Campaign (1460-1461)

After capturing the Despotate of Morea, Mehmed II pivoted towards the eastern front seeking to capture territory along the coastline of the Black Sea. These regions were heavily controlled by the Republic of Genoa as key merchant hubs. Mehmed first besieged the fortress of Amasra, with a land and navy force. The Genoese colony easily fell within 2 days. The following year the Ottoman army pressed further east along the coastline of the Black Sea seeking to confront the Trebizond Empire. This was a Byzantine break-away state that established along the coastline of the Black Sea by the early 1200s. Beginning to fear the Ottoman’s rise to power, the Trebizond Empire formed an alliance with the Aq Qoyunlu confederation (based in the middle east).

Mehmed began his campaign against the Trebizond Empire in the spring of 1461 first by attacking the port city of Sinop. After that he pressed towards the capital city of Trebizond with a massive land and sea force. Without the key trading hubs of Amasra and Sinop, Trebizond quickly found itself quite isolated. The siege lasted for about a month with heavy bombardment artillery. While Trebizond was able to put up a strong resistance their morale was low, and eventually the city was surrendered. The city was eventually annexed and their leader was executed. This marked the fall of the Trebizond empire and a significant conquest for Mehmed who now controlled a major portion of the Black Sea.

Conquest of Lesbos (1462)

Two years after conquering the Peloponnese islands, Mehmed moved towards their nearby neighbors of the Lesbos islands in 1462. This island was also in a very vulnerable spot near the Ottoman influence and found itself leaning towards the western Italian states for support. Once again Mehmed saw this as a strategic fortification in the Aegean Sea that he had to have control of. After just 15 days of siege, the Castle of Mytilene fell and their leader Gattilusio was captured and executed. The island was annexed into the Ottoman Empire.

Conquest of Bosnia (1463-1464)

Following the collapse of Serbia, many nobles fled to the Kingdom of Bosnia to try to regroup. However there was no secret that Mehmed intended to continue his conquest of the Balkan region by claiming Bosnia. King Stjepan Tomasevic fully aligned himself with Hungarian support and stopped paying tribute to the Ottoman Empire in 1461. He even appealed to the papacy and the western Christian states. Nonetheless Bosnia found itself quite vulnerable by 1463, due to internal issues within the Kingdom of Hungary. As Mehmed began his rapid campaign into Bosnia, the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus did not have the proper resources or finances to aid Bosnia.

Mehmed began his campaign in the spring of 1463 with an estimated 50,000 soldiers, including janissaries and heavy artillery. He marched his army from Serbia, across the Drina River, using psychological warfare to spread fear and rumors throughout the countryside. The Ottoman army first sieged the royal fortress of Bobovac, then Jajce, and Kljuc. All fortresses fell fairly easy which gave Mehmed significant loot and ruined the Bosnian’s morale. King Stepjan Tomasevic made his final stance at the fortress of Kljuc, hoping for Hungarian aid that never came. He surrendered hoping for mercy, but Mehmed shown him none by having him executed. This harsh act was to serve as a warning to all other leaders who chose to defy him. The Hungarian king Corvinus was later able to recapture some territory in the north, but the majority of Bosnia was annexed into the Ottoman Empire.

Negroponte- Euboea Island (1468)

Following Mehmed’s conquest in Bosnia and the islands of Southern Greece, the Republic of Venice felt their key trading hubs in the Mediterranean were now at risk. Thus the Ottoman-Venetian War began in 1463, when the Republic of Venice attacked Ottoman forts in Morea and Argos. Mehmed responded with swift counterattacks to reclaim his territory in southern Greece. Meanwhile the Albanians allied with the Venetians, who fought fiercely against Mehmed’s army under the leadership of Skanderberg. This resistance went on for several years until the death of Skanderberg in 1468. Mehmed was eventually able to capture the capital city Scutari, annex Albania, which thus left the Venetians all the more stranded.

The true turning point of Mehmed’s war against the Venetians came at the siege of Negroponte (modern day Euboea Island) in 1470. Mehmed invested heavily in his navy to lay siege to this crucial Venetian island in the Aegean Sea. He organized both a ground force of 70,000, along with a powerful fleet, and heavy artillery to lay siege to the key fortifications. This was to be the decisive battle of the Ottoman-Venetian Wars, and both sides fought fiercely. Mehmed personally lead the land forces to lay siege to the walled fortress of Negroponte (just as he had done with Constantinople). The bombardment lasted for several weeks, until finally the walls were breached and the Ottoman army stormed into the city. This marked an abrupt end to Venetian control of the Mediterranean and can arguably be considered Mehmed’s 2nd greatest victory after Constantinople.

Anatolia Campaigns (1468-1473)

After failing to capture Albania from the fierce resistance of Skanderberg, Mehmed continued his fight in the Balkans during the Ottoman-Venetian wars. Meanwhile he also had to split his attention to the eastern Asian front. The Karaman Empire, located in the southeastern portion of Turkey, had begun to intensify it’s aggression against the Ottoman Empire. The Karamans had also allied themselves with the Venetians and the Persian Akkoyunlus seeking to press their advantage. Mehmed thus found himself caught in a two-front war against the Venetians on the west and the Karamans on the east. This offered him a good reason to expand into eastern Turkey as well as towards Anatolia.

Mehmed began his Karaman campaign from Bursa and Ankara in 1468 heading straight for the capital city of Konya. Once again his army moved rapidly and sacked fortresses without much resistance thanks to their superior heavy artillery. Once Konya fell, the city of Larende fell shortly after and their leader Pir Ahmed fled into the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. Ahmed was able to return with a Mamluk force to reclaim some of his territory in Karaman. This led to a 2nd Ottoman offensive in 1474 where Mehmed delivered the final blow to the Karaman Empire and annexed the territory. Mehmed also furthered his conquest into eastern Turkey by crushing the Akkoyunlus under Uzun Hasan at the Battle of Otlukbeli. With this victory Mehmed had total control of eastern and central Anatolia. He decided not to press further into Persia so that he could fully focus on his Balkan campaigns.

Conquest of Otranto (1480)

This was to be Mehmed’s final major conquest, his first outpost in Italy, and his farthest westward expansion into Europe. Otranto was a profitable merchant hub of the Kingdom of Naples and thus very desirable for Mehmed to control after he had recently secured Albania. He appointed Gedik Ahmed Pasha to lead the naval and land assault with an army of 18,000 soldiers and a fleet of 128 ships. The siege began in July 1480 and lasted for 15 days until the walls were breached and the infantry stormed the city. There is a famous account of 800 Italian prisoners who refused to convert to Islam and were subsequently beheaded. They are considered the Martyrs of Otranto and celebrated to this day. After this victory in Southern Italy, Mehmed intended to continue his campaign into Italy however died of illness the following year in May 1481. This conquest of Otranto was very short-lived due to Mehmed’s death, and regained by the Christian armies within a few months in September 1481.