Historical Look: French Revolutionary Wars

Following the execution of King Louis XVI, France had officially broken away from it's monarchy and was now left to govern itself. This led to continuous infighting among the different political factions that would lead to the Reign of Terror. It also brought an abrupt end to relations once held among monarchies. In fear that the French Revolution would spread throughout Europe, France suddenly had many enemies. Soon there was a formation of European coalitions in an open war against France. These French Revolutionary Wars would make way for the rise of a young commander named, Napoleon Bonaparte.

War of the 1st Coalition

In 1793 the Holy Roman Empire was the first to declare war on France. The emperor Francis II was especially bitter towards the maltreatment of his aunt Marie Antoniette. They were joined by the Great Britain, Prussia, the Hasburg Monarchy, and Spain to assembled a Coalition. The Austrian and Prussian armies struck first led by the Duke of Brunswick. However they were repelled by the French at the Battle of Valmy. This early victory raised the morale of the French army and it's capability to withstand a major war.

However the French suffered defeat at the Battle of Neerwinden in the Netherlands. To make matters worse there had been numerous uprisings throughout France led by insurgents aided by the British Empire. The Siege of Toloun and War in the Vendee were the most drastic of these uprisings. They consisted of royalists, Catholics, and peasants seeking to overthrow the French republic. In response to these uprisings the National Convention established a Committee of Public Safety to unify the nation at all costs.

Reign of Terror

The Committee of Public Safety was headed up by Georges Danton, Maximilian Robespierre, and his younger prodigy Saint-Just (all of which were Jacobian members). In March of 1793 the popular Jacobian journalist Jean Paul Marat was poisoned by a political opponent. This only furthered the Jacobin Committee's frustration at their political opponents. Maximilian Robespierre thus ushered in a harsh political purge against all enemies of the republic known as the Reign of Terror.

Through his revolutionary tribunals he quickly brought to trial all political opponents such as the Girondins, monarchists, clergymen, and insurgents. They were harshly sentenced to death in public squares by the guillotine, which became the symbol of the Committee's justice. During this period over 40,000 citizens were executed by the guillotine, including the former queen Marie Antoinette.

Also during this time the Committee implemented a new religion to replace Catholicism known as the Cult of Reason. The basis of this atheistic religion was influenced by the Enlightenment and a desire to seek knowledge rather than the ancient teachings of the Catholic Church. Soon Notre Dame and the Strasbourg Cathedral were replaced as temples of reason. Robespierre also introduced a different religion known as the Cult of the Supreme Being which was to rival Catholicism and the Cult of Reason. His claim was that God did exist however mankind could only govern itself through knowledge.

By the spring of 1794 the Jacobin leaders of the Committee began to grow many enemies for their radical administration. Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins were executed by their political opponents. In response to the growing pressure, Robespierre heightened his tribunals and began mass executions of the dissidents. This period in June was known as the Great Terror, Robespierre's final purge.  

Thermidorian Reaction

By July of 1794 the National Convention began to conspire against the tyrannical Robespierre. They were led by Paul Barras and stormed the Committee chambers on July 27th. During the confrontation Robespierre was shot in the face however did not die. He was later executed the following day, along with Saint-Just and the 20 other Jacobin associates.

This marked the end to the National Convention and a transition into the French Directory. Paul Barras was chosen as the leader of the directory. During this transition there still was a continued political purge of Jacobian associates known as the White Terror. By August of 1795 the new constitution of the French Directory was completed.


Rise of Napoleon

Meanwhile the war had begun to shift in France's favor as they repelled numerous attacks on the north from Austria and Britain. Once the situation in Paris had been quelled they began a series of counterattacks. Their first major offensive victory came at the Battle of Fleurus in which the French army claimed territory in the Netherlands. By this point the Prussians were forced to withdraw from the war. France continued their offensive in the Low Countries and in Janurary 1795 they established the Batavian Republic.

In the fall of 1795 the British once again supported a royalist uprising in Vendee which was squashed by a young commander named Napoleon. This victory brought him rapid ascension thru the military ranks. In 1796 Napoleon was assigned his first campaign in Italy while General Jean Moreau invaded the Rhineland. Napoleon was able to quickly dominate the Italian Kingdom of Sardinia thru brilliant tactical maneuvers. Following the Peace treaty of Sardinia he was able to focus on the Austrian armies.

During this time the Spanish Empire abandoned the coalition and waged war on it's former enemy of England, in hopes to share the spoils with France. This lead to the Anglo-Spanish War which was mostly a battle at sea. However the war served a greater purpose for France as it distracted the British Empire. The war was a disaster for Spain and ultimately ended in a stalemate.

By July of 1796 Naopleon laid siege to the Austrian Provence of Mantuna. Meanwhile he was reinforced in the Rhineland by General Moreau's army. By this point the archduke of Austria knew he had been defeated and was forced to sign the Treaty of Campo Formino in October 1797. This ultimately ended the 1st coalition, while Britain still remained at large. Also during this time Napoleon conquered Switzerland and established a Roman Republic while deposing of Pope Pius VI. This only lasted for a year however until the papacy was restored.

Invasion of Egypt

After his victories in Italy and Austria, Napoleon was not ready to go home. Instead he decided upon a glorious campaign into Egypt. Knowing the Ottoman Empire did not pose a threat this was merely for territorial and economic gains. It was also an effort to weaken the British control of India. He won an early victory outside of Cairo at the Battle of the Pyramids. However his fleet was destroyed by Horatio Nelson at the Battle of the Nile. This marked the first major defeat for Napoleon.

He regathered his army in Egypt and then mounted an invasion of Syria. He was once again however defeated by the British and Ottoman Empire at the Siege of Acre and forced to further retreat. By July of 1799 he once again achieved victory in Egypt at the Battle of Abukir. At this point he decided to abandon his campaign and return to France. While he was able to secure some land the campaign was ultimately a failure. He returned to Paris in October of 1799 at the midst of another political coup within the Directory.

French Consulate 

By early 1799 while Napoleon had his army in Egypt the French Directory was once again caught in political turmoil. The committee was divided by fears of royalist uprisings, poor economy, corruption, and the many ongoing wars. At this time the Hasburg Monarchy of Austria once again declared war on France with a 2nd coalition. The Jacobin members of the council once again intended to radicalize their government. At the request of a prominent French clergyman, Abbe Sieyes, Napoleon returned to Paris to plot a takeover.

On November 9th of 1799 Napoleon marched into the chambers of the Directory with the support of his brother Lucian and a small force of soldiers to proclaim a new constitution. He was confronted only by a few Jacobin deputies who were quickly escorted out of the chamber by Napoleon's soldiers. After this minor skirmish of which no lives were loss, Napoleon had authority within the chamber and the coup was complete. This marked the swift end to the Directory and the beginning of the French Consulate. Napoleon became the 1st Counsel of the government with a consolidated power over the other legislative branches. This ultimately marked the end of the French Revolution and would pave the way to a French Empire.

War of the 2nd Coalition

By 1799 Britain and Austria had enlisted the Russian Empire to join their cause against France, marking the start of the 2nd coalition. The Russian armies led by General Alexander Suvorov led successful campaigns in Switzerland and Italy to recapture territory that was possessed by the French.  Meanwhile the British and Russians waged a campaign in the Netherlands however were defeated at the Battle of Castricum. The Russians were further defeated in Switzerland at the 2nd Battle of Zurich. This proved to be a decisive French victory in recapturing Switzerland and causing Russia to withdraw from the war.

Having secured his new government, Napoleon left Paris to rejoin his armies in Italy and drive the Austrians back. At the Battle of Marengo he achieved victory over the Austrians and used it as propaganda to declare his rightful claim as leader of France. Meanwhile his general in the Rhineland, Jean Moreau also achieved numerous victories such most notably at the Battle of Hohenlinden, which crushed the Austrian forces. By 1801 Great Britain was once again on it's own against France and decided to withdraw their campaign. The British Empire thus temporarily recognized the French Consulate at the Treaty of Amiens. Napoleon was able to return to France as it's official victorious leader. 

Historical Look: The French Revolution

This is a historical topic I've been wanting to study and write about for some time now. The French Revolution was probably one of the most significant events in human history, on par with Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the Crusades, the discovery of America, World War I or World War II.

It's a topic I've only had a general understanding of, yet that's about to change. I suppose now is the time to dive into this intriguing topic as I am still very fascinated with French culture and history. It's a very detailed study which I intend to break into 3 parts; first the Revolution itself, then the Revolutionary Wars, and finally the Napoleonic wars. (My Study on Spanish culture will just have to wait.)

The first thing that comes to mind when I think French Revolution is the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, arguably one of the greatest generals in history. However it was the impoverished people who started the revolution against the monarchy. They were later joined by the nobles and intellects. It was royalty such as Marie Antoinette who fueled the frustration with her ignorant comments such as "Let them eat cake". By 1789 the people had enough and by storming the Bastille they had begun the French Revolution. The 25 years to follow would be a turning point in European history and perhaps one of the most interesting periods in history.

Causes of the Revolution

Just like every other major historical event, the French Revolution was a storm in the making for many years before it actually happened. Some of it's root causes emerged from the Age of Enlightenment, where French people began to question the authority of the monarchy and the Catholic Church. It was radical writers such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau who encouraged the people to use reason and free thinking. This idea quickly began to spread throughout France and all was needed was a series of sparks to ignite the fumes.

These sparks of public rage began to appear after the American Revolutionary War in 1783. In an effort to pay off the debts accrued from the war, King Louis XVI raised taxes and allowed deregulation on the bread market. This ultimately lead to poverty and hunger throughout the streets. As the lower classes began to riot, the upper classes also had grown frustrated with the monarchy and began to organize committees of their own. On June 13th, 1789 the French people organized a National Assembly which was to become the new commune of the revolution.

Storming of the Bastille

On July 11th, King Louis XVI fired his financial minister, Jaques Necker, who was somewhat sympathetic to the people. This became the final spark to the uprising, which started at the Bastille fortress in Paris, It was an armory of weapons, a political prison, and a symbol of the monarchy which made it the ideal place for the people to strike first. A crowd of around 1000 Parisian insurgents gathered around the fortress making demands to the guards.

The tension quickly escalated and the insurgents began to fire upon the prison with guns and cannons. After several hours of fighting the commander of the fortress surrendered and was killed. 98 of the insurgents had been killed however they had succeeded in capturing the fortress. As a response the king appointed the famed American Revolutionary general, the Marquis de Lafayette, as his new commander of the national guard.

The National Assembly

Following the capture of the Bastille, the country of France found itself in a state of paranoia known as the Great Fear. The monarchy laid low while the people began to arm themselves and form militias. This led to a period of chaos and insurrection in which the people began attacking posts held by nobles and the monarchy. By the 5th of August. the National Assembly abolished feudalism and with the help of Thomas Jefferson they published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. This was their initial set of principles which would eventually lead to a constitution in the years to come.

On October 5th nearly 7000 women marched from Paris to the royal province of Versailles to make their demands heard. Their outcries were mostly for bread and the widespread poverty. Hesitant at first King Louis XVI was eventually convinced by Lafayette to relocate his court to Paris. Meanwhile the people's National Assembly grew more powerful and began to direct their resentment towards the church. The Roman Catholic church was considered a tool of the monarchy and was eventually revoked of it's privileges. The clergy members were to answer to the French state now rather than to their pope. This growing anti-Catholic fervor within the revolution would eventually make way for it's radical replacement known as the Cult of Reason.

For the next year to follow the National Assembly broke into factions of political groups. They were lead by aristocrats and lawyers such as the Honore Count of Mirabeau, Antonie Barnave, and the most radical of them all Maximillien Robespierre and his Jacobin Club. During this time the assembly continued to pass new laws which restricted the privileges of the clergy, nobility, and the monarchy while granting new rights for the lower classes, blacks, and Jews. By January of 1791 Mirabeau was elected president of the national assembly.

By this point King Louis XVI could only watch as the national assembly took control of his kingdom. Fearing for his safety he fled with his wife to the Austrian border of Varennes however was discovered and captured. This only furthered the public's cry for a republic instead of a constitutional monarchy since the king had fled. However the national assembly recognized that the king still had foreign support and the allegiance of the national guard led by the Marquis de Lafayette. In September of 1791 the king and the assembly reached an agreement and signed a new constitution in which France would serve as a constitutional monarchy.


Legislative Assembly

With the establishment of the new constitution the National Assembly became known as the Legislative Assembly. Under this new government, King Louis XVI still had powers such as being able to veto bills. He put these powers to use by vetoing the assembly's new laws against political immigrants and clergyman. This blockade along with other various reasons pertaining to a poor economy and war with Austria led to further insurrections.

On August 10th, 1792 a group of Jacobin militia stormed the Tuileries Palace, and took the king hostage. Chaos and massacres swept throughout Paris and France killing mostly defiant clergy members. At this point the Marquis de Lafayette fled to Austria and the national army had dissolved to the assembly. On September 20th the assembly gathered to establish a new constitution that abolished the monarchy. The kingdom of France was now to be governed as a republic.

National Convention

The Legislative Assembly transitioned into the National Convention, which oversaw the trial of King Louis XVI. The delegates of the new government consisted of two major political factions; the center-conservatives known as the Girondins and the radical liberals known as the Montagnards (who also sided with the Jacobins). The committee accused King Louis XVI of summoning foreign aid to squash the revolution. They voted in favor of his execution which occurred on January 21st, 1793. The French Republic was now free of the monarchy while the rest of Europe watched with great dismay. This marked the end of the French monarchy yet would lead to a Reign of Terror, War throughout Europe, and the rise of a new dictator.

Key Figures in the Revolution

• King Louis XVI- He inherited the throne of France in 1774 and oversaw the American Revolutionary War. He supported the American colonists against the British kingdom, however it came at a financial cost. In an effort to pay for the cost of war he deregulated the break market which only made things worse for the people. By 1789 he was the main enemy of the French Revolution that ultimately lead to his beheading in 1793
• Marie Antoinette- She was the young wife of King Louis of Austrian descent. She was disliked by the general public for her lavish spending and careless attitude towards the peasants. She was eventually captured and executed several months after her husband in 1793.
• Maximilian Robespierre- He was a radical lawyer and perhaps one of the most iconic figures of the French Revolution. He became one of the leading members of the National Assembly and the Jacobin political faction. In 1793 he was appointed along with Georges Danton as a leader of the Committee for Public Safety. He used this power to purge political dissidents thru public executions in what has become known as the Reign of Terror. He was eventually convicted and executed himself for his extreme measures.   
• Georges Danton- He was the young passionate voice of the revolution who quickly became one it's leading figures. He was known for his ruthless demands and is often credited with leading the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the republic. He helped Maximilian Robespierre administer the Committee for Public Safety. He was later killed during the Reign of Terror.
  
• Jean Paul Marat- He was a radical journalist and member of the Jacobin Club. Through his publications of, Friend of the People, he encouraged the peope's sentiment towards Revolution. He was later killed in 1793 by a political opponent. 
• Count of Mirabeau- He was a prominent nobleman, member of the Jacobin Club, and an early leader of the Revolution. In 1791 he was elected president of the National Assembly and favored a constitutional monarchy however died shortly after of natural causes. 
• Louis Antoine de Saint-Just- He became one of the youngest members of the National Convention as a military and political leader. He had a strong voice in favor of the execution of the king. He administered the early parts of the French Revolutionary Wars and the Reign of Terror. He was considered the Angel of Death and executed along with Robespierre.
• Marquis de Lafayette- He was a decorated military general who served alongside George Washington during the American Revolutionary War. Following the Storming of the Bastille, King Louis XVI appointed him as head of the national guard. The Marquis was however unable to maintain control and was forced to flee to Austria. He would later return following the fall of Bonaparte. 

Study of Belgian Culture

To be honest I didn't know much about Belgian culture before I planned to visit Gabriel in Brussels. I knew they had a good international soccer team and many players in the English Premier League such as, Eden Hazard, Vincent Kompany, Kevin De Bruyne, Maroune Fellani, etc but that's about it. I didn't know anything about their history, their food, their customs, or even what language they spoke. I never remember discussing Belgium in our World history classes or reading about it in the news. And I can only think of one movie I've seen, pertaining to Belgian culture, and that's the 2008 Colin Ferrell film, In Bruges.

My general consensus is that Belgium is a rather small and quiet nation that serves as a neutral buffer (along with the Netherlands) to it's 3 mighty neighbors France, Germany, and England. Throughout history Belgium has never dominated Europe the way Elizabeth did for England, Napoleon did for France, or Hitler did for Germany. Instead they have often been caught in the warpath of others or at least living in the shadows of others.

I never thought I'd be visiting Belgium or much less writing about it in this blog. However I spent 4 days in the nation, visiting the cities of Brussels and Bruges and came away with a very pleasant experience. Which is why I am now very interested in their culture and want to give a general outline as I've done before on other nations. So here is my general study of Belgian culture.

Belgian History

One thing to understand for starters is that the nation of Belgium is still a fairly new one, even younger than the United States. The Kingdom of Belgium was established in 1830 when a rebellion split away from the kingdom of Netherlands. Before that it was shared territory among the Dutch, German, and French. Therefore it's history prior to the Revolution of 1830 is shared with other nations.

The earliest tribes to inhabit the territory northwest of France, were known as the Belgae. They were conquered by Julius Caesar in 50 BC, and the Roman Provence of Gallia Belgica was established in 22 BC. It lasted for 5 centuries until the downfall of the Roman Empire. After which Clovis added the territory to his Kingdom of Francia. The territory was later divided between the Frank Kingdom and the Holy Roman Empire.

During the middle ages (the 11th and 12th centuries) the low land territory was somewhat uncontrolled and was ran by independent feudal states. The most notable and wealthy of these states was the County of Flanders. After the Hundred Years War, the low land territories became a part of Burgundy which was under the influence of France and later the Holy Roman Empire and later the Spanish Empire. During this time new cities such as Bruges, Brussels, Ghent, Ypres, and Antwerp began to thrive. By the 15th and 16th century these cities became centers of the Flemish Renaissance.

By the mid 1500s the low land territory had become predominately protestant which upset King Philip II of Spain. In an attempt to abolish Protestantism, the Dutch revolted against Spanish rule which led to the Eighty Years War. The lowland provinces were supported by England against the Spanish Empire in a war or religion. The aftermath resulted in a split of the lowlands, the northern part became the Dutch Republic under Protestant control, while the southern part (modern day Belgium) remained under Spanish Catholic control.

During the 1600s Spain was involved in a series of wars and territorial conflicts with France. After the War of Spanish Succession in 1714 the Spanish agreed to give their southern lowland territory to the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, which was a state of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1789 the Belgian people revolted against Austrian rule, simultaneously with the French Revolution, it what became known as the Brabant Revolution. They succeeded in establishing their own government known as the United States of Belgium. It lasted for only a year however until the Austrian monarchy regained power over the Belgian territory.

A few years later, in 1795 Napoleon conquered the lowland territories and made them a part of his French Empire for nearly ten years. He was finally defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, just south of the city of Brussels. The victorious European powers (England, Prussia, Austria, and Russia) agreed at the Congress of Vienna to establish a United Kingdom of Netherlands in 1815. However this upset the southern territory of catholic Belgians and in 1830 they revolted against the Dutch kingdom of King William.

The Belgian Revolution lasted from 1830-1831 at which point they gained their independence from the United Kingdom of Netherlands. The people established a national congress and a constitutional monarchy. They chose a German noble prince, Leopold, to ascend to the throne as their first leader. Leopold ruled for 30 years defending his borders against Dutch agitation and creating a new infrastructure for the Kingdom of Belgium.

During World War I and World War II, the land of Belgium became the prime territory of German aggression. From 1914 to 1918 their land was occupied and ravished by the German army in a series of war crimes that has become known as the Rape of Belgium. Before they could fully repair the damages down from World War I, they were once again invaded and occupied by the Germans in 1940.  While they resisted as best they could, the land was mostly a German stronghold until it was liberated by the Allied forces.

After World War II Belgium was able to govern itself for the years to come. In 1958 it became a key member of the newly established European economic Union. In the year 2000 the city of Brussels became the official headquarters for the European Union. It is a very diverse area that shares 4 common languages; French, German, Dutch, and English. It is a perfect place to host the European Union as it sits in the center of so much culture.


Belgian Architecture

One of the things I was most impressed with Belgium was it's intricate Gothic architecture. From Brussels to Bruges many of it's buildings were designed with such careful detail and sculpting something you don't normally see here in the states. Many of the roads were bricks and cobblestones which gave the cities all the more character. They also had plazas, a general square of monumental buildings, such as the Grand Place in Brussels and the Markt square in Bruges. I was also very impressed with the Saint Michael cathedral in Brussels, which slightly resembled the Notre Dame cathedral of Paris. One of it's most modern icons is the Atomium which was built for the 1958 World's Fair.

•  Brussels Town Hall (Built in 1420; 315 ft high)
• Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp (Built in 1521; 404 ft high)
• Tournai Cathedral (Built in 1700; 272 ft high)
• Belfry of Bruges (Built in 1240; 272 ft high)
• Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula (Built in 1519; 210 ft high)
• Cinquantenaire (Built in 1880)
• Atomium (Built in 1958; 335 ft high)

Belgian Art

Some of the best Belgian art came during the Dutch and Flemish Renaissance Age of the 1500s-1600s much of which was incredible painting. New movements were born during this age such as the Northern Mannerism and the Antwerp Mannerism, which was a unique classical style of painting, separate from the Italian Renaissance style. The biggest names I've heard of from the Flemish region are Pieter Brughel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens. These are actually two of my favorite painters. They both did much of their work in the city of Antwerp which was a booming center of artistic inspiration during the Northern Renaissance. Also of note on Belgian Art is one of Europe's most iconic sculpture's the Mannekin Pis which was built in 1610.


Belgian Sports

As with most of Europe the most popular national sport in Belgian is futbol. Their national team has a slew of talent playing in some of England's top clubs. Their national team finished 4th in the 1986 world cup and reached the quarter-finals in the 2014 World Cup. Their professional league is known as the Jupiler Pro League, currently ranked as the 9th best league in Europe according to UEFA's coefficients. Their two best clubs are Anderlecht and Club Brugge. Besides futbol Belgians are also known for their skill in cycling. They hosted the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp.

Belgian Cuisine

Off the top of my head I couldn't think of a staple Belgian meal however I did know that they made great beer such as Stella Artois. It was when I arrived in Brussels that Gabriel told me the staple meal was mussels and french fries. Surprisingly it's my understanding that the Belgians claim to be the founders of french fries and serve them with many of their meals (and often dip them in mayonnaise rather than ketchup). They also have a variety of stews such as the waterzooi (seafood stew) or the carbonade flamande (beef and onion stew).  They are also known for their chocolate and their waffles, which are fried and served as a dessert.   

Urban Study: The City of Paris

I've recently been inspired by my trip to Europe and the many cultures I witnessed in the span of a week. So I've decided to write a series of studies regarding the cultures, histories, and cities of which I witnessed. I have already written various times about French culture (see Study of French Culture), so will bypass that general study. I do however intend to give a further look into French history as well as a study of it's iconic capital city of Paris.

I'm really not sure when my fascination with Paris began. Perhaps it was my cousins, Marc and Jennifer, who are half French, and their French dad who sparked my curiosity. I've seen the city portrayed many times in films as the ultimate site of romance and beauty. It was Woody Allen's film Midnight in Paris, that heightened my desire to visit this city all the more. I've written several times now about the city of Paris, focusing on two specific ages, (see Paris in the 1920s and La Bella Epoque).

In this post I want to give a general outline of the city's history, which could also serve an outline of French history. I'd also like to reference the most iconic landmarks of Paris and the history behind them. After visiting the city of lights and seeing it with my own eyes, I can confidently say that it lived up to the hype. It's a city that everyone should see at some point in their lives.

History of the City- The Celtic Tribe of Parisii 

The most basic question I have about the city of Paris, is how did it become such a wonderful center of art. I suppose it's a question that can only be answered by studying the people's history. Just like any other major civilization it most likely began as a significant point of geography and resources. In the case of Paris, it sits in the mainland of France separated by the Seine River. This major river that leads to the English Channel, was no doubt an early source of economy.

The earliest record of a settlement in Paris, was in 250 BC consisting of a sub-tribe of Celtics who became known as the Parisii. This tribe developed golden coins, bridges, and fortresses along the river way. The area quickly grew into a booming center of trade which caught the attention of the Roman empire. In 52 BC Julius Caesar took possession of the region and was able to squash any resistance. The region became a new state of the Roman Empire and was called Lutetia, which was Latin for swampland.

Roman Occupation 

The Romans were able to build the city in the likes of their civilizations with state of the art structures such as aqueducts. By the 3rd century, Christianity was introduced to the city by Saint Denis who was beheaded by the Roman soldiers for his new beliefs. The site of his beheading became known as Mountain of Martyrs which today is the iconic hill in Paris known as Montmarte. By 305 AD the city name was changed from Lutetia to Civitas Parisorium as a homage to the cities founders, it was known as the City of the Parisii. And by the 5th century it became simply known as Paris.

Clovis and the Frank Kingdom

For a brief period it became the center city of the Roman Empire as it began to decline due to Germanic invasions. By the year 481, the young leader of a Frank tribe named Clovis defeated the Roman armies and took control of the Gaul region. In the year 508 he made Paris the capital city of his newly established Frank Kingdom. Clovis ushered in a new era of religious leadership in the region known as the Merovingian Dynasty. Many churches, basilicas, and cathedrals were built in the area.

By 751 the Carolingian Dynasty moved the center of the Frank Kingdom from Paris and to the city of Aachen. During this period Paris lost some of it's glamour and was attacked frequently by Viking tribes. Nonetheless it hung on to become a significant fortress for the land of Francia. By the middle ages Paris began to emerge as a site of wonder with the new constructions of Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris University, and the Louvre fortress. By the 13th century more iconic buildings were added to Paris such as the Saint-Chapelle and the Bastille fortress to house prisoners.

The Hundred Years War

During the 1300s the city of Paris was infected with the Bubonic Plague which killed thousands of Parisians for over 30 years. To add to this death toll was the start of the Hundred Years War pinning the Kingdom of France in a territorial dispute with the Kingdom of England. In 1418 the city of Paris was invaded and occupied by the English army for nearly 20 years. A female warrior named Joan of Arc attempted to liberate Paris from English occupation claiming she had been called forth by God. While she was unsuccessful in her attempt she served as a rallying cry for the French armies to fend off the English occupation. By 1436 the English left the city of Paris in ruins.

By the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453, Paris was once again the capital of Francia. By the 1500s the city began to flourish once again at the height of the renaissance. New buildings, bridges, fountains, and landmarks were added to restore the city's glamorous appeal. However in the midst of this cultural boom was growing tensions among Catholics and Protestants located in Paris. The city was a stronghold for Catholics, who began a campaign of persecutions and public massacres of Protestants during the French Wars of Religion.      

By the 1600s many Protestants fled the city of Paris due to the Wars of Religion. In an attempt to lift the moral of Paris, King Henry IV commissioned new buildings and an expansion of the Louvre fortress which had become the house of the royalty. By 1671, King Louis XIV relocated the Royal residence from Paris to Versailles located in the outskirts. Despite this relocation of the royal residence the city of Paris continued to grow and prosper. Buildings such as the College of Four Nations, the Les Invalides hospital, and the Comedie Francaise theater

The French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte

By the mid 1700s during the Enlightenment Age, Paris had become the financial center of France and Europe. Cafes began to sprout all over the populated city which attracted new intellectual writers such as Voltaire and Jean-Jaques Rousseau. This rush of enlightenment perhaps gave way to the French Revolution of 1789 in which Paris was at it's center stage. Workers and impoverished stormed the Invalides to acquire weapons and later stormed the Bastille. A few weeks later the mob had organized into a full pledged revolution and they marched to Versailles to capture the royal family. The city thus became independent of royal authority.

However the conflict that followed the dismantling of the monarchy became known as the Reign of Terror, a political purge that swept thru the city of Paris. The guillotine became the new deadly symbol of the French Revolution and those opposed against it had their heads chopped off in the public squares of Paris. During this time many of the iconic buildings and cathedrals such as Notre Dame were damaged since they were symbols of the monarchy. By 1799 the young general Napoleon Bonaparte was able to replace the Directory government with a French Empire. In 1804 he declared himself emperor and intended to make Paris the capital of his empire, in the likes of Rome.

During this transition of power, the buildings in Paris continued to emerge with new purpose. New bridges such as the Ponte de Artes were constructed. The Louvre was transformed into a museum, while the Pantheon was transformed into a mausoleum. The Palais-Burbon became the home of the national assembly. In 1806 the famous Arc de Triumphe was commissioned by Napoleon to commemorate his French Army. A smaller arc was also built known as the Arc du Carrousel which has a quadriga at it's top similar to the Bradenburg Gate. Napoleon also commissioned a monumental elephant statue to be built at the site of the Bastille, however this project was never completed.

The Restoration of the Monarchy

Following Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, the city of Paris was occupied once again by the English army until Louis XVIII restored the French monarchy. The ruined buildings and cathedrals were renovated and the city quickly returned to it's extravagance. The Louvre was expanded and a new transit system was constructed. However frustrations among the general population and the lower classes grew inspired by the writings of Victor Hugo.

By 1830 a new constitutional monarchy was established led by King Louis-Phillipe who intended to calm the growing tension among the streets of Paris. He construed a new plaza known as the Place de le Concorde however this did not solve the problem of sickness and poverty. There were numerous riots and uprisings throughout the 1830s, one of which inspired Victor Hugo's famous Les Miserables novel. By 1848 the working class had finally reached it's tipping point and were once again able to topple the monarchy.

Napoleon III

In 1848 Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon, became the 1st elected president in the newly established republic. However he was not able to acheive much due to division among monarchists and republicans and in 1851 he dismantled the parliament and formed the Second French Empire declaring himself emperor. His top priority was to clean the streets and get the unemployed back to work. He did this by expanding the city, destroying old buildings and replacing them with new ones. He also pushed for new parks to be constructed throughout the city. By this point the industrial revolution had taken full flight and the economy of Paris was booming.

However by 1870 Napoleon's rule came to an abrupt end at the hands of the Franco-Prussian. In January of 1871 the Prussians besieged the city and occupied it briefly until the French Empire was dissolved and the Third Republic was established. However shortly after the establishment of this republic, resistance came among the Parisian working class who were able to establish their own government within the city known as the Paris Commune. They controlled the city for about two months until they were defeated by the French army during the Bloody Week.

The Bella Epoque 

In 1873 the government commissioned a new basilica to honor the Paris Commune and those who had suffered during the Franco-Prussian War. The Basilica of Sacre-Coeur was built at the top of Montmarte and completed in 1919. Other buildings were rebuilt and remodeled such as the Gare d'Orsay train station. In 1885 the entire city of Paris gathered to mourn for the funeral of their favorite writer, Victor Hugo, whose tomb was placed in the Pantheon.

Throughout this booming period of culture and innovation, Paris hosted five international expositions to welcome tourists. The first two were hosted by Napoleon III in 1855 and 1867 to demonstrate French culture and their industry. The third was in 1878 which had historical significance. It was at this exposition that Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated his telephone, Thomas Edison demonstrated his phonograph, and the head of the statue of liberty was presented before being sent to the United States.

However the exposition of 1889 was all the more magnificent as it unveiled the construction of the world's tallest structure, the Eiffel Tower. The tower was to be a temporary gateway to the exposition and was unpopular to many at first however soon became the most iconic landmark in the city. At the 1900 exposition the city presented the world's largest Ferris wheel as well as the modern architectural designs of the Pont Alexandre III, Grand Palais, and the Petit Palais. This exposition also introduced new fashions, manufacturing designs, as well as the modern art nouveau style. The exposition coincided with the 1900 Paris Olympics (the second games of the modern Olympics, and the first city to host besides Athens). After these 5 expositions, at the turn of the century Paris had become one of the most glamorous cities in the world.

World War I, the 1920s, World War II  

At the outbreak of World War I the Parisians felt a sense of French patriotism to fend off the German armies. Along with the help of the British and American armies they were able to defend their city from being occupied. After the war Paris partook in an economic cultural boom of the 1920s that had swept throughout the world. The Annees Folles saw Paris become a center for art, attracting artists such as Ernest Hemingway, Igor Stravinsky, Scott Fitzgerald, Salvador Dali, and James Joyce. New movements also began to emerge during the 1920s such as Jazz and Surrealism.

Paris suffered during the Great Depression the same as the rest of the world, however still managed to host another World Fair in 1937. Few years later at the outbreak of WWII, the French were unable to defend the Nazi blitz and Paris was occupied in June 1940. Many Parisians fled the city and evacuated their major works of art from the Louvre museum. For nearly four years the Germans occupied the city raising their flags on all the iconic buildings and initiating a curfew at night.

By 1944 as the American allies had landed in Normandy the French resistance forces began an uprising in the city of Paris. As the chaos ensued, Hitler ordered that the Eiffel Tower and other monuments be destroyed however the commanding German officer ignored the order. General de Gaulle arrived with his French army on August 26th 1944, and the town of Paris had been liberated. The Fourth Republic was established in 1946.

Paris Today

Problems and poverty continued in Paris following the aftermath of WWII and the Fourth Republic was very divided. In 1958 Charles de Gaulle was elected president and established a new constitution, the Fifth Republic, which is the present government of France. Continued renovations on old buildings and new constructions of modern art were commissioned throughout the city to maintain the lure of Paris. The iconic glass pyramid entrance of the Louvre was built in 1984.

Today Paris has remained one of the most glamorous and top tourist destinations in the world. It's government is now a member of the European Union in which it usually takes a diplomatic approach. The city has suffered numerous terrorist attacks in the past decade a problem that has spread thru much of the western world. However the city of lights continues to stand tall and shine bright throughout the world.

Architecture- Key Landmarks of the City

• Notre Dame Cathedral
  
• Construction: 1165-1345
• Purpose: Roman Catholic Church
• Significance: It is one of the most iconic buildings in the city of Paris and also one of it's oldest. It's architecture is true beauty as it incorporates details sculptures and a flying buttress format. The cathedral has also been the site of tumultous history and was desecrated during the French Revolution who favored a practice of reason rather than the Catholic religion. It was restored after the revolution and remains one of the most visited cathedrals in the world. 
• The Louvre
• Construction: 1202-1546 (Continuios expansions)
• Purpose: Fortification for the Monarchy
• Significance: It was once the house of the Royal Monarchy and later became the largest exhibition of art in the world. Along with it's iconic glass pyramid it houses some of the most famous art and is one of the most visited museums in the world. 
• Sainte Chapelle
  
• Construction: 1242-1248
• Purpose: Roman Catholic Church
• Significance: It is one of the oldest chapels in the city of Paris, a fine example of medieval Gothic architecture. It is best known for it's extensive collection of stained glass windows.
• The Sorbonne
• Constructed: 1257
• Purpose: Part of the University of Paris
• Significance: This site was once the house of the University of Paris and today is a center for higher education and research in Paris. 
• The Conciergerie
  
• Construction: 1284-1314
• Purpose: Royal Palace, Prison, Museum, Law Courts
• Significance: It was first built as a palace of the medieval Frank kings. During the Reign of Terror it became a prison and housed very important prisoners such as Marie Antoniette and Napoleon III. After the restoration of the monarchy the building became used mostly for a court of law 
• Saint Eustache
  
• Construction: 1532-1633
• Purpose: Roman Catholic Church
• Significance: It is a fine example of Gothic architecture incorporating Renaissance themes in it's chapel and stained glass windows. It was desecrated during the French Revolution yet later restored.  
• Tuileres Garden
• Constructed: 1564-1860 (Palace Demolished in 1871)
• Purpose: Royal Residance
• Significance: It was once the center of the grand royal palace until it was burnt by the Paris Commune in 1871. It now is a public plaza of gardens loacted across from the Louvre museum. 
• Acadamie Francaise (French Academy)
• Construction: 1635
• Purpose: Academy
• Significance: It was established by the Cardinal Richelieu as a council on the French language. Today there are 40 members who meet to discus matters relating to the French language. The council members are elected for life and are known as immortals. 
• Les Invalides
  
• Constructed: 1671-1678
• Purpose: Military complex 
• Significance: It was comissioned as a hospital and barracks for soldiers yet later became a museum and monument for soldiers of war. Today it houses the tomb of Napoleon. 
• The Pantheon
• Constructed: 1758-1790
• Purpose: Church and Mausoleum
• Significance: It was comissioned by King Louis XV as monumental church in the likes of the Roman Pantheon. The classical structure has ever since been a mausoleum hosting the tombs of many notable Parisians such as Victor Hugo, Voltaire, Rouusseau, and Emile Zola to name a few
• Place de la Bastille
• Constructed: 1792
• Purpose: Monument of the Storming of the Bastille
• Significance: It is now a plaza with a column at it's center which was once the site where the Bastille prison stood. The storming of the Bastille was one of the most iconic images of the French Revolution. 
• National Museum of Natural History
• Construction: 1793
• Purpose: National Natural history Museum
• Signficance: It was officially established in 1793, however the royal botanical gardens were created in 1635 by King Louis XIII.  
• The Arc de Triumphe

• Constructed: 1806-1836
• Purpose: To Commemorate Napoleon's Army
• Significance: It is one of the most iconic landmarks in Paris, built as a commemoration for Napoleon's Army. The site has overseen many historical events such as the occupation of Nazi Germany. 
• The Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel 
• Constructed: 1806-1808
• Purpose: To Commerorate Napoleon's Army
• Significance: It is half the size of the Ar de Triumphe, once located at the front of the Tuileres Palace. It has a quadriga at the top of the monument very similiar to the Bradenburg Gate of Berlin.
• La Madeleine
  
• Constructed: 1807-1828
• Purpose: Roman Catholic Church
• Significance: Neo-classical structure built as a Romanesque temple to honor the glory of Napoleon's Army
• Musee d'Orsay
• Construction: 1810-1840
• Purpose: Museum
• Signficance: It was first built as a major railway station along the Seine River; By 1986 it was transformed into a museum gallery hosting soming of the most famous impressionist paintings. 
• The Palais Garnier
• Constructed: 1861-1875
• Purpose: Opera House
• Significane: It is the primary home of the Paris Opera often considered one of the most famous opera houses in the world much thanks to the musical, The Phantom of the Opera. 
• Basilica of Sacre Coeur

• Constructed: 1875-1914
• Purpose: Roman Catholic Church/ Monument for Lives lost during Franco-Prussian War and the Paris Commune
• Significance: The basilica was built on top the famous Montmarte hill which has now become a booming district of art and culture
• The Grand Palais
• Construction: 1900
• Purpose: Museum
• Significance: It was built with a modern design in the likes of a greenhouse to be presented for the 1900 World Fair Exposition. To this day it is used as a museum and exhibit hall. 
• The Eiffel Tower
• Construction: 1887-1889
• Purpose: Monumental Entrance to the World Fair
• Significance: It is the most iconic structure in Paris, a simple yet monumental lattice tower of iron. It was once the tallest structure in the world for nearly 40 years. The design was meant to be a temporary display for the World Fair, however it proved to be useful for communications. It stands tall to this day, attracting millions of visitors each year.  
• Musee Rodin
  
• Constructed: 1919
• Purpose: Museum 
• Significance: It hosts most of Rodin's scultpures including his most famous The Thinker, the Kiss, and the Gates of Hell which are displayed outside among the gardens of the museum.
• Centre Georges Pompidou
• Constructed: 1971-1977
• Purpose: Museum
• Significance: It is a demonstration of modern architecture; with it's unique inside-out structure. The building was commissioned by president Georges Pompidou as a modern landmark. It has often been received with mixed reactions.  

Bucket List: Top 50 Cities to See

Last week I checked off some major cities from my Bucket List (Brussels, Bruges, Rome, Paris, and Barcelona). While I was very satisfied and inspired with the trip, it also reminded me of how big of a world it is that we live in. There's still so much I want to see and explore before I die. I've always said that if I was a millionaire I would spend more money on traveling rather than possessions.

I believe that at the age of 32 I have already seen more cities than the average person of my age. Nonetheless I want to continue traveling to new places as much as I can. So here is my list of top 50 cities and places I hope to see before I die. (I should make note that I don't have much desire to visit Africa, Asia, Australia, the Middle East, or Eastern Europe. This could maybe change at some point but for now my personal preference is places of western Christian civilization)

Top 50 Places to See

50. Moscow, Russia- This is about the only place in the eastern hemisphere I would consider visiting since it such a historic site. I've always enjoyed Russian history and culture, however have often thought of eastern Europe as a bit on the gloomy side. There are some sites in Moscow I would enjoy to see such as the Kremlin, Red Square, and Saint Basil's Cathedral. If I were ever to make a trip to Russia I would also try to see St. Petersburg which is an hour flight from Moscow. 

49. Portland, Oregon - The first thing that comes to mind is the hipster show Portlandia, and the gothic/90's punk sub-culture. However this northwestern region of the United States is one of the few remaining places I have yet to visit and I hear it's very worth the visit. 

48. Taj Mahal (Agra India)- This trip would be primarily to see the monumental Taj Mahal which was built in 1632. The city itself is located inland, and perhaps would be a good chance to take in some Indian culture, especially the food which I've always enjoyed.  

47. Dubrovnik, Croatia- It is a beautiful seaport sitting along the Adriatic Sea, a hub of classic architecture and a beautiful view along the coastline. This Croatian city could perhaps be packaged with a trip to Italy. 
46. Turin, Italy- It is the 4th largest city in Italy filled with great history and art. They were also the hosts of the 2006 Winter Olympics. They are home to one of the most successful Italian futbol clubs, Juventus FC. They are also known for the famous Shroud of Turin. 

45. Zurich, Switzerland- It is the largest city in Switzerland, the country known for it's cheese. It is also filled with great medieval history.
44. Copenhagen, Denmark- It is the capital of Denmark, a coastal town filled with classical architecture. It is also very close to the Swedish city of Malmo (which could almost be included on this trip). 

43. Seattle, Washington- When I think of Seattle I think of rain, coffee, and the Seattle Mariners baseball team. I hope I could include this trip with my stop in Portland, covering that northwestern region of America that I have never been to.
42. Oslo, Norway- The reason I would consider Norway is because of the Norweigen friends I made in Costa Rica. I would also like to see their famous fjord valleys, such as the Geriangerfjord.
41. Bogota, Colombia- It is the biggest city in Colombia, and being half Colombian myself I would see this as a personal trip. I'd imagine the culture is very similar to my experience in Maracaibo, Venezuela.
40. Mount Rushmore (South Dakota)- This is one of several destinations on this list that is more for the monumental site rather than the city as a whole. Mount Rushmore is one of the most famous American landmarks and I hope to see it with my own eyes sometime. If only I can find another good reason to make it out to boring South Dakota. 

39. Geneva, Switzerland- It is the headquarters of the United Nations and often is associated as a land of peace and happiness. It appears to be a beautiful city at the tip of Lake Leman, dosed with classical architecture.
38. Porto, Portugal- It is the 2nd largest city in Portugal, a nation I have always been fascinated with due to our family friend Rita and their international futbol team. This is a very old city that sits along the Atlantic coast filled with classical architecture.
37. Milan, Italy- It is the 2nd largest city in Italy, a booming metropolis area of ancient and modern culture. It is also home to two of the most successful clubs in Italian history, AC Milan and Inter Milan.
36. Caracas, Venezuela- I've been to Maracaibo on 3 different occasions throughout my life, yet still have yet to experience Venezuela's largest metropolis. The country is undergoing much political turmoil but perhaps someday I could make a heritage voyage back to the nation where my mother grew up in. I had an incredible time when we visited Maracaibo back in 1999. 

35. Edinburgh, Scotland- It is the 2nd largest city in Scotland yet arguably the more beautiful of the two. This is because it sits within a bay of the North Sea. It is surrounded by incredible old architecture, green landscape, and a beautiful coastal view of the sea.
34. Medellin, Colombia- This would be another personal trip perhaps grouped with Caracas and Bogota as heritage voyage. Medellin is the 2nd biggest city in Colombia, it's where my grandmother (mom's mom) was from, and also the infamous site of Pablo Escobar and his drug cartel. 

33. Panama City, Panama- This place has a personal pull to it, since it was where my parents lived for a couple years after getting married in Venezuela. My understanding is it is a very tropical area with heavy American influence.

 32. The Grand Canyon (Arizona)- Similar to Mount Rushmore, this geographical American landmark is somewhat secluded from a major urban area. Las Vegas is about 4 hours away and Phoenix is about 3 hours away. However I think it would be very worth the drive to see this magnificent gorge in the desert.
31. Lisbon, Portugal- This is the largest city in Portugal and perhaps the best place to start my experience of Portugese culture. It is also located on the Atlantic coastline, sitting in the bay of the Rio Tejo. It is a very beautiful city loaded with classical architecture. 

30. Cologne, Germany- It is the 4th biggest city in Germany, and home to one of my favorite cathedrals; the very gothic Cologne Cathedral completed in 1880 it was the tallest standing structure in the world for 4 years until it was surpassed by the Washington Monument.
29. Liverpool, England- The first thing that comes to mind is the home of the Beatles and their futbol club. I can only imagine this city located on the western English coast, by the River Mersey is an iconic center of British culture and architecture.
28. Naples. Italy- It is the 3rd biggest city in Italy, a booming metropolis along the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is the coming together of ancient Roman history and modern Italian culture. It also served as an influential hub for the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. 

27. Havana, Cuba- This is a very colorful city, sitting on the northern bay of the tropical island of Cuba. It is loaded with culture, architecture, and especially history as it was home to Castro's Communist uprising. Just recently for the first time in over 50 years it has opened it's airports to American tourism.
26. Dublin, Ireland- This would also be a heritage voyage to see the ancestors of my other grandmother (dad's mom). I think of Ireland as rolling green pastures, good beer, and a beautiful view from the cliffs of the Irish Sea.
25. Munich, Germany- It is the 3rd biggest city in Germany, sitting high among the Bavarian Alps. It is loaded with historical sites, from the medieval age to it's dark age of WWII. The city is a booming metropolis today that hosted the Olympics in 1972 which oversaw the tragic Munich Massacre of Israelis by Palestine terrorists. The city is also home to one of the most successful clubs in Europe, Bayern Munich. 

24. Versailles, France- This royal city on the outskirts of Paris is most notably known for it's chateau and palace that served as the home of the French monarchy from 1682. It is loaded with incredible art, sculptures, architecture, and landscape. A true must see for any admirer of history and culture. This trip could certainly be included with a longer visit to the incredible city of Paris.
23. New Orleans, Louisiana- This is about one of the last major American cultural cities I have not been to. Located in the southern Gulf of Mexico this city is booming with iconic culture from it's Cajun/Creole food to it's flamboyant Mardi Gras celebrations. I think it would be a great place to party with friends.
22. Prague, Czech Republic- This old medieval city sits at the heart of mainland Europe and happens to be the capital of the Czech Republic. The reason I have this city so high on my list is because Gabriel has given it such high praise. It is home to incredible classic architecture such as the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, and the Old Town Square.  

21. Manchester, England- This city would certainly be included on my trip to England as it is home to my favorite futbol team Manchester United. It also happens to be the 3rd largest city in England and is certainly loaded with great British culture. Some other sites to see besides the classic Old Trafford stadium would be the town hall and it's cathedral.
20. Stockholm, Sweden- This would be a heritage voyage to visit the ancestors of my grandfather (dad's dad). The city sits in the northern Scandinavian nations along the Baltic Sea and would surely be different from mainland Europe. The city is a modern city that was host to the 1912 and 1956 Olympics.
19. Madrid, Spain- It is the largest city in Spain, a booming metropolis located at the heart of the nation. It also has historical significance as the home to the Spanish monarchy as well as many notable landmarks such as the Royal Palace of Madrid and the Royal Theater. Of personal interest to me it is home to one of the most successful clubs in Europe, Real Madrid. 

18. Normandy, France- This would be a historical visit to see the site of the most famous invasions in American history, D-Day. It was here that the Allies landed on the beaches of Normandy to repel the Nazi occupation of France during WWII. There is also the monumental site of the Mont Saint-Michel island which has one of the most beautiful monasteries in the world. Both these sites located in the northern region of Normandy (a few hours from Paris) would make for an incredible visit of the French countryside.

17. Buenos Aires, Argentina- It is the largest city in Argentina and the 4th largest city in North, Central, and South America. Argentine culture is heavily influence by European culture and the city known for it's good air is perfectly located on the tropical coastline of the southern Atlantic Ocean. Known for their dancing, good meats, and futbol I think I would very much enjoy this visit to Latin America. 

16. Budapest, Hungary- To be fair I don't know too much about Hungarian culture, and don't have too much interst in visiting eastern Europe. However Budapest is an old medieval city I have heard mentioned many times as a center of incredible art and architecture. I think a visit to this mainland city could be include on a trip to central European sites such as Vienna, Prague, and Munich.
15. Casablanca, Morocco- There are only a few places in Africa and the Middle East I would consider visiting and Casablanca is definitely at the top of the list. This is because of it's Spanish and Portuguese influence. It is also the site of the famous 1942 Humphrey Bogart film and has ever since been associated as a romantic city.
14. Neuschwanstein Castle (Hohenschwangu, Germany)- Located in the southwest region of Bavaria, this incredible monument sits high on a mountaintop like a sight from a fairy tale movie. Built in 1886 as a retreat for King Ludwig II, it has brought tourists from all over the world to look upon the wonder. A trip to this site is only an hour from Munich, and would make for a good German countryside experience. 

13. Vienna, Austria- City of Music is first thing that comes to mind, as it once was the epic center of classical Baroque music. Famed musicians such as Mozart, Beethoven, and Bach all resided in Vienna as frequent performers at the opera houses. The city is loaded with medieval architecture, castles, and gardens as a history of it's own apart from being a center of music. 

12. Pisa, Italy- Home to one of the most famous towers in the world, Pisa is an old historic city with many medieval churches and structures. The leaning tower of Pisa is a part of the Piazza dei Miracoli and is no doubt a must see iconic landmark of Italy.  

11. Berlin, Germany- It is the largest city in Germany and one of the largest cities in Europe. The city is a modern metropolis however also has significant historic sites such as the Reichstag Building and the Bradenburg Gate, which was built in 1791. My greatest fascination with Germany is it's dark history in WWI and WWII that almost saw it's complete ruin at the hands of Hitler and the Nazi party. In the aftermath of WWII the city was divided into an eastern and western portion by a wall. Today the city has reunited into a booming global economy, with a rich culture and a complicated history. 

10. Seville, Spain- The first thing that comes to mind is bullfighting, perhaps for it's iconic stadium the Plaza de toros de la Real Maestranza de Caballerina de Sevilla. The city is extremely old and historic, home to some of Spain's most beautiful architecture including the Seville Cathedral and the Plaza de Espana.
9. Machu Pichu (Cuzco, Peru)- This breathtaking site in the Andes mountains is an iconic structure of the Inca civilizations of Latin America. It is considered the Lost City because there is no direct road from Cuzco. Instead it requires trains, buses, or hiking to reach the site above the Sacred Valley. A trip to Machu Pichu would make for the perfect hiking outdoor adventure.
8. London, England- The capital and largest city of the United Kingdom this is a place I would like to spend several days at. I have always been fascinated with British culture and history and would find great joy in touring the famous landmarks of London such as the Parliament building, St. Paul's Cathedral, and the Tower Bridge. The Westminster Abbey would also be a must-see destination as the main coronation site of the English monarchy. 

7. Rio de Janiero, Brazil- It is the 2nd largest city in Brazil yet undoubtedly the most beautiful as it sits on the shoreline of the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a tropical metropolis bursting with colorful culture from it's food, samba dancing, to it's national pastime of futbol. The Christ the Redeemer statue is a modern wonder of the world as it overlooks the harbor in a fairy tale fashion. The city has also recently urbanized as it hosted the 2016 Summer Olympics.   

6. Florence, Italy- This city was home to the Italian Renaissance and houses many notable art and architecture from famous artists such as Leonardo de Vinci. The Florence Cathedral is an awesome sight to see as it was the largest domed structure of it's time. Florence has many art museums including the gallery of the Academy of Florence which houses the most famous sculpture, David by Leonardo de Vinci. 

5. Athens, Greece- So much ancient history and ruins to be seen in Athens, especially the Acropolis which overlooks the city high on top a mountain. I love Greek culture, their history, the mythology, and especially their food. The city has also urbanized since they hosted the 2004 Olympics.
4. Istanbul, Turkey- It is the largest city in Europe and the 7th largest city in the World. It is considered a very historic city that has always been a center for culture. It's most famous landmark is the Hagia Sophia mosque that was built in the year 537. It is located on a bay within the Sea of Marmara. The city is a fusion of European and Asian culture which makes it so unique and beautiful.
3. Cairo, Egypt- It is perhaps one of the most ancient cities still functioning today. It is the capital and largest city in Egypt, a booming center of Islamic art and architecture. Cairo's claim to fame is the Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx, which is the only remaining ancient wonder of the world. This historical site is located only 40 minutes away from Cairo's city center and should be on everyone's bucket list.
2. Jerusalem, Israel- This would be a pilgrimage for me to a holy land that saw the birth and death of our lord, Jesus Christ. The town of Bethlehem is about an hour north of the city, where Christ was born. The area of Nazareth is also north of Jerusalem where he grew up. There are also many sites in the northern district of Galilee where Jesus performed his ministry. There are also sites in the southern district of Judea, near Jerusalem where Jesus performed his ministry and was crucified outside the city outskirts on the hill of Golgotha. With proper planning and research I believe all these sites could be seen in a few days. 

1. Venice, Italy- To me this seems like the most beautiful city in the world, because it is essentially an island of riverways. It is a city floating on the water. It was once a booming center during the middle ages and the renaissance which is demonstrated in the city's art and architecture. Other famous sites within the city include the Piazza San Marco, the Grand Canal, and Saint Marc's Basilica. It seems like the perfect destination for a romantic getaway.