Movie Masterpiece: Melancholia

I was quite excited when I saw Melancholia suddenly appear on Netflix, a movie I had wanted to see for some time. I remember hearing quite a bit about it last summer and fall, at the Cannes Festival or on NPR, mostly praising Kirsten Dunst's performance. It's not often I watch a movie twice in one week, unless it's something truly original and captivating. Well that is definitely the case for this art-film directed by Lars von Trier, unlike anything I've see before.

From the get-go it's quite clear that this movie is a "gloom-and-doom" story, by no-means a feel-good movie for the faint of heart. Lars von Trier, makes it clear in the beginning that the world is going to end. However never has an end-of-the-world film, looked so beautiful. It is dosed with a powerful Wagner score, incredible astronomic visuals (similar to Tree of Life), and an amazing landscape setting. Throughout the film the planet Melancholia, is having a death dance with Earth, and there is no escaping this planetary collision. However the story doesn't focus on the total chaos of the end of the world, yet instead presents the reaction of a few.

The main protagonist is a depressed bride named Claire, played by Kirsten Dunst, who begins to unravel at the beginning of the film. At her reception, she displays an extreme behavior of aloofness and disconnection from her loved ones. Her new husband can hardly recognize her, while her sister and brother in-law are quite frustrated with her ungratefulness. "I am trudging through this grey wooly yarn, it's really heavy to drag along" she tells her sister, confessing her depression. The wedding is a total debacle of awkward exchanges, between Claire and her groom, her parents, and her boss.

The movie then takes a different turn in the second part, focusing on Claire's sister Justine, and the peculiar planet of Melancholia. Justine is a concerned mother, afraid that the planet may collide with Earth. She is however constantly assured by her scientific husband, that it is no more than a "fly-by". Justine takes care of her depressed sister, while growing more anxious of the planet. Suddenly it becomes a reality that the planet is on a death path to Earth. The interesting contrast that occurs in this film, is the different reactions of Claire and Justine. Justine begins to panic at the inescapable doom, while the depressed Claire remains calm. The final moment of this film, where the planets collide, is quite sensational. It is a conclusion of sheer gloom, and yet done so in such an artistic fashion.

History of Christianity: European Wars of Religion

The Reformation was a major religious dispute, between Protestantism and the Catholic Church, and quite naturally it turned into a political and armed dispute. It began with peasant uprisings in the 1520s, the Eighty Years War in 1568, the French Wars of Religion in 1562, the Thirty Years War in 1618, and the English Civil Wars in 1639. Although each of these wars were fought for various political or economic purposes, it was driven by a disagreement of religion. This period of Christian Civil War, resulted in a major decline of Catholic influence and a rise of Protestant influence.

Protestant Uprisings

By 1524, nearly 5 years after Martin Luther had been excommunicated from the church, his movement had grown quite passionate throughout Central Europe. This sudden burst of Protestant fervor eventually turned into radicalism. It sparked revolts throughout Germany and Switzerland against the Holy Roman Empire. One of the most notable of these revolts was the German Peasant's Uprising which lasted for over a year, from 1524-1525, and resulted in the death of over 10,000 peasants.

Eighty Years War

After this there were many other notable Protestant revolts, throughout central Europe, however the first successful one occurred in the Low Countries of Europe. Calvinism had grown especially popular in the Netherlands, and would eventually initiate a Dutch Revolt against King Philip II's Spanish Empire. In 1568, the Eighty Years War began as a major peasant rebellion that eventually won the support of Dutch nobles such as William of Orange. The Dutch nobles and peasants united for an on-and-off battle against the Spanish armies. While this was mostly a war of independence, it was also a religious war with religious allies. Catholic Spain was aided by the Holy Roman Empire, while the Dutch Protestants were aided by the German and French Protestants. It eventually combined into a much larger conflict, however by 1648, the Dutch had finally won their independence from Spain.

French Wars of Religion

During this time, another civil conflict emerged within France, with a similar issue of religion. The growth of Calvinism, spread throughout France, and gave way to a new group against the Catholic Church, known as the Huguenots. In 1562, several Huguenot followers were murdered, at the Massacre of Vassy, which sparked the French Wars of Religion. The main dispute was between noble aristocrats and their difference in religious ideology. The Huguenots gained support from other Protestant factions as well as England. On the other hand, the French Monarchy won support of Spain and the Vatican. This period of religious civil war, lasted for over 30 years, with numerous battles and massacres. The civil war had a third party, known as the Politiques, who used compromise and negotiation to bring about the Edict of Nantes in 1598. This treaty applied the use of tolerance and secularism to recognize both the Huguenots and Catholics within France.

Thirty Years War

By the 17th Century, these Christian civil wars and rebellions eventually merged into one great war throughout Europe, known as the Thirty Years War. It began in 1618, with the Bohemian Revolt against the Holy Roman Empire. The Bohemians found early success under the leadership of Frederick V, as well as support from the Protestant Union and the Ottoman Empire. They were however later defeated in 1620, by Ferdinand II and the Holy Roman Empire at the decisive Battle of the White Mountain. This resulted in a brief period of retreat and standstill for the Protestants, however only the beginning of the war.

The French Huguenots were still not pleased with the Edict of Nantes, and continued their uprisings throughout the 1620s. Once again, this consisted of a series of battles and rebellions against the Catholic Monarchy. It finally came to an end during the Siege of La Rochelle, led by King Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu. The French Monarchy would later revoke the Edict of Nantes, as well as persecute and expel the Huguenots from France.

In 1625, the low countries of Europe began to unite and intervene against the Holy Roman Empire. Christian VI, the Lutheran king of Denmark-Norway, saw this war as a pivotal turn for the Reformation and feared a Catholic success. He thus led a massive army of over 20,000 marching through Germany, and laying siege on various Imperial towns. The Danish army was however defeated by the Catholic General Albrecht von Wallenstein, at the Battle of Wolgast. Christian VI and his Danish army were forced to retreat, while the Catholics continued to repel the Protestant armies.

However in 1630, the Swedish Empire picked up where the Danish left off, and successfully invaded Germany, under the leadership of King Gustavus II Adolphus. This Swedish campaign finally marked a turning point for the Protestant war against the Catholic Empire. In 1631, Gustavus II Adolphus found victory against the Holy Roman Empire at the Battle of Breitenfeld, however lost his life afterwards in the decisive Battle of Lutzen. While this marked an extremely important victory for the Protestants, they now lacked leadership and direction.

The war then took a sudden political direction, when the Catholic Monarchy decided to aid the Protestant armies of Sweden. This curious motive, was launched by the political Cardinal Richelieu, who saw an opportune moment to turn France into the ultimate power in Europe. He did this by declaring war on Spain in the west, (who was preoccupied with the Dutch) while allying with Sweden in the east against the weakened Holy Roman Empire. This action gave the Swedish a new boost to reignite their campaign against the Holy Roman Empire. By 1648 the Protestant armies had swept through Germany, winning many decisive battles against the Holy Roman Empire. The Battle of Prague, marked the end of the Thirty Years War.

Peace of Westphalia

In 1648, the religious wars finally came to an end with the Peace of Westphalia. This treaty was an end-all to the multiple conflicts throughout Europe; coordinated by the French, Swedish, Spanish, Dutch, the Holy Roman Empire, as well as other liberated Protestant states. The Dutch were granted their independence from Spain, in the Peace of Munster, which brought an end to the Eighty Years War.

Meanwhile Protestants were given freedom and liberty to rule their states as they wish on an equal playing field as Catholics. This treaty thus brought an end to the Thirty Years War, and completely changed the scope of Christianity in Europe. A new age of Secularism had now begun, and the Catholic Church was pushed back as a mere onlooker of political affairs.

History of Christianity: The Reformation

It seemed only natural that there would be dissension within the church as a result of the Renaissance. This was primarily due to a century of corruption within the papacy, where popes would marry, have children, mistresses, and grant indulgences for money. Pope Alexander VI was the epitome of this corruption, from 1492-1503. His leadership would ignite a movement of opposition to the papacy and the new ideal of humanism. This protest fervor was first initiated by the Dominican monk, Savonarola, who spoke out against the practice of humanism, and the distancing of Christianity that was occurring in Florence. He was however executed in 1497, by Pope Alexander VI, yet his conservative ideals carried on throughout Europe to spark a Protestant Reformation.


Ninety Five Thesis

The movement began in Wittenberg Germany in 1517, when the Augustine monk, Martin Luther, posted his Ninety Five Thesis document on the walls of the Castle Church. This document was a list of protests against the corruption of the Catholic Church. Prior to this, Luther had grown extremely disgusted with Pope Alexander VI's selling of indulgences, and felt it was time for Christianity to move in a new direction. This bold action, became a declaration of independence from the Catholic institution and the beginning of the Protestant movement. Following his excommunication in 1520, Luther began to establish his theology and church that grew to become Lutheranism.

Lutheranism became the defining religion of the Protestant Movement with the most followers. It established a doctrine that differed from Catholicism in many ways. First there was the Real Presence, a belief that God was within the Eucharist and that a transformation of bread and wine were not necessary to become body and blood. Lutheranism also emphasized a belief in Sola Fide, faith alone and nothing else. They believed there was no need for a papal institution to dictate the law of God, and only Christ held that power.

In 1521, Martin Luther's new theology was put to the test, at a Imperial assembly in Germany, known as the Diet of Worms. He was summoned by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, to explain his revolutionary beliefs against the Catholic church. Knowing that he may be persecuted, Martin Luther boldly stood by his beliefs in front of the assembly, accusing the Catholic church of corruption and religious dogma. The assembly thus ruled that Luther was a notorious heretic, and should be punished accordingly. Luther however managed to escape and go into hiding.

Reformation in Central Europe

There were many in Central and Northern Europe, who agreed with Luther's protest against the Catholic Church. A significant reformation began to sweep through Switzerland, led by the pastor Huldrych Zwingli. This new theology, was very similar to Luther's protestant approach, and quickly began to spread throughout the country.

The Protestant Movement began to branch into different directions, claiming that Luther's theology was either too conservative, no conservative enough, or in need of compromise. One of the most significant leaders who worked for compromise was the Dutch priest Desiderius Erasmus. Erasmus was a Renaissance Humanist, aware of the corruption within the church, yet devoted to fixing it from within. He worked effortlessly to bridge the gap between the Protestants and the Catholic church.

In 1536, a French theologian, named John Calvin, took the Protestant Movement into a more radical direction. He began his work in Geneva, Switzerland to reform the Christian church based on much stricter beliefs. Through his Five Points, John Calvin emphasized a harsh ideal of "predestination", "total depravity", and limited justification. The belief basically stressed that humanity was ultimately doomed and needed to spend their lives seeking salvation from God. This theology, became known as Calvinism, and quickly spread from Geneva, throughout Germany, Switzerland, Hungary, and other parts of Central Europe.



Church of England

The reformation movement took a significant turn in England under the leadership of King Henry VIII. At the time, there was a growing sentiment for reformation, and the King merely took advantage of it for personal gains. Henry VIII was a devout Catholic, however after the Catholic church did not grant him an annulment from his wife Catherine of Aragon, he split away from the church, and established the Church of England in 1534. This new church consisted of Reformation ideals, and was entirely under the control of the monarchy. Henry VIII was then able to officially marry Anne Boleyn, who later gave birth to the great Queen Elizabeth.

This religious reformation within England, became the defining issue of Queen Elizabeth's reign. On one side she received heavy opposition from the Catholic institution and the Spanish Empire. On the other hand she received heavy opposition from radical reformers such as the Calvinists and Puritans. In 1588, Queen Elizabeth was ale to bring an end to King Philip's Catholic crusade, during the Spanish Armada. By this point she had established one of the most powerful empires in the world, and a new center for culture. She worked vigorously to further the Church of England, by infusing both Catholic and Reformed ideals. England thus became the first official Reformed government.

This Elizabethan Religious Settlement, was not enough however for the conservative reformists, and eventually sparked a Puritan Movement to change the Church of England. Throughout the 16th and 17th century England grew divided over this religious issue; those who supported the Church of England and those who opposed it. This would later result in migrations to the new colonies of America, as well as an English Civil War from 1642-1651. The English Civil War was a result of political, economic, and religious differences. It eventually resulted in the end of the monarchy and the establishment of a Commonwealth of England, a government for the people, under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell.



Counter-Reformation

By 1545 the Catholic Church had grown quite aware of this sudden spread of the Protestant Reformation, and launched a counter campaign with the Council of Trent. The Council held 25 sessions, from 1545-1563, to condemn the Protestant Movement while also reforming the Catholic Church. They ruled against the Protestant Movement, by rejecting Luther's concept of "Sola Fide" and disallowing other interpretations on the bible. However the council also agreed to improve the administration of the church from within, and to especially bring an end to the corruption.

Following the Council of Trent, the Catholic Church made an organized effort to pursue and re-convert Protestants. This Counter Reformation against Protestantism consisted of new religious orders and movements to revive the Catholic faith. Orders such as the Jesuits, embarked on missionaries of religious education throughout Europe, Asia, and the Americas. Meanwhile new Spiritual Movements began to arise in Spain, inspired by mystical nuns and priests such as Ignatius of Loyola and Teresa of Avila. These Spanish Mystics wrote of their divine experiences, to further the church's theology on spirituality.

History of Christianity: The Renaissance

By the mid 15th century, the Spanish Empire ruled the west while a new rising power, known as the Ottoman Empire, began to dominate the east. In the year 1453, the Muslim Ottoman Empire conquered the city of Constantinople, which marked the end for the Byzantine Empire. This resulted in Christian migrations to the westward lands of Italy, most notably to a small city in Tuscany, known as the city of flowers, Florence.

The city of Florence, would soon become the Christian epicenter of cultural inspiration, ranging from the arts, politics, architecture, economics, science, and knowledge. This movement was especially initiated by powerful families, most notably the Medici. During this time, some of the greatest artists to have ever existed, such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Botticelli, all lived in Florence.

By the mid 15th century, the cultural movement known as the Renaissance took way in Florence, and began to spread it's inspiration throughout Europe. The dark medieval ages, had finally come to an end, and humanity had once again continued to progress. This rebirth of ideas, ushered in a new age of Enlightenment that significantly challenged the Christian institution. The Catholic Church would soon have to contend with various cultural movements, ranging from the Scientific Revolution, an Industrial Revolution, and a total Christian Reformation.

The Medici Family

By the late 14th century, wealthy families began taking power in the city-states of Italy. The most powerful of these families was the Medici, who at the time, owned the largest banks in Europe. Other wealthy families such as the Borgia (Pope Alexander VI and Ceaser Borgia) the Pazzi, and the Sforza are no comparison to the long-lasting might of the Medici. They influenced both the church and the political affairs of the Republic of Florence for over two centuries, and can be credited as the fathers of the Renaissance.

The family rose to prominence in 1434, with Cosimo de' Medici who used his wealth to influence the politics of Florence. Cosimo's greatest aspiration was to turn the city of Florence into a thriving capital of arts and culture. He achieved this by making peace with the neighbors (Naples, Venice, Milan, and the Holy Roman Empire), welcoming many notable Byzantine scholars from the recently fallen Constantinople, strengthening ties with the church, and especially encouraging the enrichment of art.

Cosimo de' Medici was considered the father and elder of the booming city, and his passion was later passed on to his grandchild, Lorenzo. In 1469, after the death of Cosimo, Lorenzo the Magnificent took the lead role of directing the city of Florence. His greatest contribution, was as patron of the arts, sponsoring many famous artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, and Michelangelo. Following his death, the Medici power diminished for a while, and was replaced by the Dominican monk, Savonarola, and later by the political guidance of Machiavelli.

The Medici family however once again rose to prominence over Italy, when Lorzeno's son became crowned Pope Leo X in 1513, and was  later followed by his cousin Pope Clement VIII in 1523. In 1537, Cosimi I, was recognized as Duke of Florence by the Holy Roman Emperor. Cosimo I de' Medici continued to uphold the family legacy and enrich the city of Florence, with a newly organized government, architecture, and arts. He was later promoted by the pope to become the first Grand Duke of Tuscany. The Medici family would obtain this post for the next 200 years.


The Borgia Family

By the end of Lorenzo's life, Florence had become a thriving capital of culture and arts, and the Renaissance was underway.  However by this time, the Medici dominance was challenged by rival families such as the Pazzi and the Borgia, as well as the Catholic Church. Several Christian leaders, most notably a friar named Savonarola, began to feel that Florence had begun to stray away from Christian principles. He condemned the corruption of Lorenzo and the Medici family, and would later target the Borgia Pope Alexander VI.

In 1492, after the death of Lorenzo, Rodrigo Borgia became Pope Alexander VI. With their Spanish ties, the Borgia family had risen to prominence within the Catholic institution. The family was however extremely corrupt, and used means of bribery and simony to reach the top. Savonarola was the families' harshest opponent, and in 1494 took advantage of the French invasion, to redirect the city of Florence. He was however excommunicated by the corrupt Pope Alexander VI in 1497, and was later publicly executed. He was replaced by Machiavelli's standing army and thriving democracy, which lasted until 1512.


The Philosophy of Humanism

The age of the Renaissance was inspired by a new ideal that challenged religious dogma and encouraged human practicality. This was in part due to the new invention of the printing press, which made it easier for people to study classical works. This new philosophy became known as humanism, and became a cultural movement during the Renaissance. Numerous Italian scholars such as Petrach, Leonardo da Vinci, and the political statesman, Niccolo Machiavelli, began to practice this concrete approach to understanding.

The general idea of humanism was to consider the realistic physical embodiment of existence, rather than it's divine metaphysical understanding. Although humanists did not completely reject Christianity and the ideals of faith, their ultimate ambition was to use reason and ethics as a means to better understand human nature. This philosophy became the backbone of the Renaissance, and was incorporated into the government, politics, education, science, literature, and especially celebrated in the arts.

The Art of Human Beauty

The ideals of the Humanistic Renaissance are best captured in the arts that celebrate human beauty. From it's architecture, paintings, sculptures, literature, and so forth, there was a great influx of creativity during this time. It is no wonder that some of the greatest artists and artworks came during this period of history. The Renaissance was a period of sudden cultural revolution. Much of this credit should fall upon the patrons of the arts, such as the Medici family, who encouraged and financed these monumental achievements, however one cannot deny that there was truly an inspirational fervor in the air.

The city of Florence was undergoing a rebirth of ideas, a sudden originality, perhaps even a freedom from theological restraints. And although these artists set out to glorify the Christian belief, they ultimately glorified the human body, in a revolutionary fashion. The art of the Renaissance celebrated Christian history and theology through a new captivating representation of human beauty.

As discussed before, it was not the church nor the government that initiated this sudden patronage of the arts, yet the powerful wealthy family of the Medici. The beginning of this art movement thus began in Florence, when the Medici discovered young artists such as Brunelleschi, who designed Florence Cathedral; and Donatello best known for his bronze sculpture of David.

Lorenzo the Magnificent initiated the golden age of the Renaissance when he discovered the young painters Sandro Botticelli and Michelangelo. The paintings of Botticelli accentuated human beauty by emphasizing their masculine and feminine features. His masterworks such as Primavera, The Birth of Venus, and Venus and Mars, are colorful works of mesmerizing beauty. Botticelli was later, discouraged by the harsh criticism of Savonarola, and eventually succumbed to the anti-humanistic pressure.

Michelangelo, however, did not give in to this pressure of modesty, and took the ideal of human beauty to new heights. His first masterpiece was completed in 1499, was known as the Pieta, a marble sculpture that depicted the crucified Jesus in the lap of his mother, Mary. This ideal of natural beauty was later intensified in his masterful sculpture of David. The sculpture was commissioned in 1502 to stand outside the town hall of Florence. It depicts David in a heroic yet calm stance, perhaps moments before he is about to face Goliath. In 1508 Michelangelo was commissioned by the church, Pope Julius II, to paint a glorious fresco on the ceiling and walls of the Sistine Chapel. Although Michelangelo was not as skilled a painter as he was a sculptor, he succeeded in creating the masterful illustrations of the Book of Genesis and the Last Judgement.

Leonardo da Vinci, was also a Florentine native during this time, and is considered the utmost embodiment of the Renaissance ideals. He was a polymath, in expert of many subjects, and made numerous contributions to the humanist philosophy. He was a painter, sculptor, musician, architect, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and a writer. His greatest works were the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper, as well as many other technological contributions.

During the High Renaissance, came numerous other masterworks and artists such as Raphael, best known for his painting the School of Athens, that celebrates philosophy. Other notable Italian artists of this time included Bellini, Titian, and Giorgione. The Italian artistic quality however spread to  other countries as well, and inspired their own unique style. Such as depicted in the Dutch masterworks of Hieronymous Bosch (The Garden of Earthly Delights) and the Flemish painter, Pieter Brugel the Elder and his numerous works.

The church considered many of these nude paintings to be overbearing, and initiated a campaign of Decorum, to bring modesty to these paintings by covering up their genital with fig leaves. This campaign was agreed upon, during the Council of Trent in 1545, that began a Counter-Reformation against growing heretics, such as the Protestants, as well as the ideals, science, and immodest art of the Renaissance.

The European Spread

By the late 15th century, the cultural movement of Florence, began to spread throughout Europe. Similar to the spread of Christianity, these new ideals of humanism were quickly understood and accepted within the general population. European cultures began incorporating their own customs and heritage into this common pursue of enlightenment.

In the ports of Portugal and the mighty Spanish Empire, an age of Discovery took forth, into the unmarked territories of the Americas. This success was greatly contributed to the navigational advancements and the technological innovations of the Renaissance.

In parts of Northern Europe, music began to develop, and change from the previous Medieval and Gregorian formats. Thanks to the invention of the printing press, musicians could add and share complexity to their music. This era of Renaissance music was an important musical transition that would later evolve into Opera, Baroque, and Classical Music.

In 1440, a German inventor, named Johannes Gutenberg, invented the printing press that would essentially play a key role in sparking this renaissance. This invention made it easier for people to share knowledge with one another, and perhaps question what they had been taught. It may have been just the tool needed for the German monk, Martin Luther, to openly disagree with the teachings of the Catholic Church and thus initiate a Protestant Reformation. (More on this in the next post)

By the late 16th century, the Italian Renaissance in Florence had lost it's steam, however eventually shifted it's cultural ideals to the new rising power of England. This was a culmination of Protestant Beliefs, the defeat of the Spanish Empire, and the crowning of Queen Elizabeth. In 1558, Queen Elizabeth ushered in a new golden age, of cultural, economic, and military prominence, that became known as the Elizabethan Age. At the core of this cultural age, was a sudden appreciation and practice of theater, led by great writers such as William Shakespeare, heavily influenced by the Italian Renaissance.

The Scientific Revolution

The ideals of the Renaissance such as humanism, practicality, and the pursue of knowledge, gave way to a new age of scientific discovery. This era began in the mid 16th century, and could perhaps be considered the final blow to the Catholic Church. New scientific ideas ranging from astronomy, physics, biology, medicine, and chemistry, were presented to the public, that did not entirely line up with the church's teachings. This of course infuriated the Catholic institution, who began to accuse these groundbreaking scientists of heresy.

By 1533, Nicolaus Copernicus, had introduced a theory of heliocentric cosmology, that explained the earth was not the center of the universe, however the sun was. This idea went against the Christian principle, that the earth was at the center of everything. Copernicus died before his theory could be openly disputed and analyzed. Nearly a century later, however, Galileo Galilei renewed this discovery, with new scientific evidence. This led to the church's response of a Roman Inquisition, in 1615, to bring an end to scientific heresies.

The Scientific Revolution continued however, into the 17th century, when Johannes Kepler presented his concept of planetary motion in 1610. The next monumental discovery came in 1687, when the English physicist, Isaac Newton presented his theories of gravity and laws of motion. This scientific age of discovery began to demonstrate a means of explaining everything.

By this point, the French philosopher, Renee Descartes, coined the term "scientific method" as a means of acquiring knowledge through scientific investigation. This new philosophy of Rationalism, encouraged intellectual reasoning while denouncing the practice of faith.

The Renaissance marked a pivotal shift for human reason and the role of the Catholic Church. It was an age of Enlightenment, where people began to purse knowledge and self-awareness rather than forced dogma. It especially played a crucial role in cleansing a corrupt and fear-mongering institution, that had perhaps lost sight of it's flock. Following the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church significantly changed it's role in society, to become more of a sanctuary of peace. And although the church has somewhat lost it's muscle and influence of the past, the ideals of Christianity; spirituality and eternal life, cannot be disproved by rational evidence.