History of Christianity: The Inquisitions

This segment is a continuation of the dark periods of Christian History, concerning the atrocities of the Inquisition; from the Medieval Inquisitions of the 1200s, the notorious Spanish Inquisition of the late 1400s, and on to the Roman Inquisition of the 1500s. It was a period of persecution, trial, torture, and often execution led by both the government and the Catholic Church. The initial intent was to purge society from heretics, apostates, Jews, atheists, Muslims, and any other form of non-Christian believer.

The Catholic Church initiated this cleansing campaign in the name of God and for the good of humanity. Similar to the crusades and other religious wars, it brought forth elements of violence and theological hypocrisy. Although I do not want to emphasize this terrible period of the church's history, I think it is important to understand and acknowledge it.


Episcopal Inquisition

The first major Christian inquisition began in 1184, when Pope Lucius III, issued a decree to do away with heresy. The main target of this Episcopal Inquisition was against the growing religious movement in southern France known as Catharism. These Cathars believed in elements of dualism and gnosticism, (a pursue of higher intellect) quite different than the established Christian theology. The episcopal structure began to fear this rising movement, and felt it should be purged accordingly. This was handled through excommunications, public trials, and due punishment.

This inquisition also led to a military campaign in the Southern French city of Languedoc, considered a center for Catharism. The Albigensian Crusade was called upon by Pope Innocent III, to bring an end to Christian heretics. It lasted for 20 years, from 1209-1229, and greatly reduced the number of practicing Carthars. However the crusade, did not entirely succeed in abolishing Catharism, and a second inquisition was put into affect in the year 1230.


Papal Inquisition

Pope Gregory IX considered the first Episcopal Inquisition and the Albigensian Crusade a failure, and decided to intensify the campaign against heretics with a second purging known as the Papal Inquisition. This campaign was far more organized and carefully administered by the newly established Dominican Order. The main target was once again to purge the remaining Cathars, as well as other heretic movements, such as the Waldensians. The Waldensians were based out of Northern Italy and believed in God, however did not believe in the episcopal structure of priesthood and sainthood.

This Inquisition established a much more effective system of prosecution through methods of investigation, trial, torture, and eventual punishment. The punishment for an accused heretic would range from prayer, banishment, or long-time imprisonment. It is important to note that these early inquisitions were quite mild in nature, with minimal torture, and no executions. The Catholic Church felt it was their duty to save heretics through cleansing, yet not murder.This was however not the case for the Spanish Inquisition.

Spanish Inquisition

One of the most infamous of the Inquisitions took place within the Spanish Empire, initiated by the Catholic Monarchs King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabelle of Castille. By the year 1480, the Spanish Empire had become a major power in the West, heavily influenced by Catholicism. The monarchy thus felt it was their duty to intensify the previous papal inquisitions and maintain Catholic orthodoxy within the kingdom. A tribunal was established, led by a Grand Inquisitor, to purge, convert, or expel any non-Christians. This mostly targeted Jewish and Muslims, however also persecuted those who practiced witchcraft, blasphemy, bigamy, sodomy, and freemasonry. It became a highly organized system that lasted for nearly 350 years, and finally came to an end in the year 1834.

Although this Inquisition was approved by Pope Sixtus IV, the papacy had little control or say over it's administration. This enabled the monarchy to put forth a much harsher system of investigation and punishment to those considered a threat to the Catholic faith. The system had a process of accusation, detention, trial, torture, and finally a sentencing. The sentencing ranged from penance, fines, imprisonment, expulsion, physical punishment, or execution. The executions were often held publicly, ranging from hangings to horrific burnings at the stake. Throughout it's 350 year history there are believed to have been over 150,000 trials, and roughly 5,000 executions.

A Portuguese Inquisition was also launched in the year 1536, by King Joao III, in solidarity with the Spanish Inquisition. This was primarily to persecute and punish Jews who were fleeing from Spain. There was believed to have been over 30,000 trials and over 1000 executions.

Roman Inquisition

In the midst of the 15th century, the Episcopal Holy See launched another Inquisition within Rome, to target an emerging threat of reformation, science, and enlightenment. By the year 1542, the papacy and the Dominican Order once again began a campaign against the usual suspects ranging from heresy, sorcery, blasphemy, Judaism, Islam, and witchcraft.

However a new breed of threat also emerged in this period of Renaissance, most notably from the Protestant Reformation and the Scientific Revolution. The most famous of these trials were against the scientists Copernicus and later Galileo, who proposed a revolutionary concept, of which the sun (rather than the earth) was at the center of the universe. These thoughts were considered quite heretic at the time, and some scientists were arrested while others were burnt at the stake. This campaign lasted until 1858, with an estimate of 75,000 trials and 1250 executions.
 

History of Christianity: The Crusades

After the Carolingian Renaissance and into the High Middle Ages, the Catholic Church had become the utmost driving force in Europe. Christian conversions continued to spread into the Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, and as far as Russia. With support from the Holy Roman Empire, the church had become a well respected and protected institution. It also became an extremely influential power regarding the empire's government. However by the late 10th century and into the 11th century a growing tension began to grow within the episcopal structure. This difference between east and west became a significant turning point for the Catholic Church. It eventually led to a military pursuit, within the Middle East, to reclaim the holy city of Jerusalem.

The East-West Schism

The religious tension between east-west date back to the fall of the Roman Empire, and the foundation of the sacred city of Constantinople. Throughout the middle ages, the Byzantine Empire had become the new power of the east, and was also influenced by the spread of Christianity. Different religious interpretations began to grow between Rome and Constantinople. One of the biggest of these conflicts was regarding the Pentarchy, the primary center of the church. The Byzantine Empire of course, felt it should be in their city, instead of Rome. Then there was the issue of the "Filioque" a disagreement over the dualism of God and his son. Other major conflicts were regarding a difference in language, culture, unleavened bread, celibacy, and other liturgical practices. 

In the year 1054 this tension finally reached it's breaking point, when both sides excommunicated one another, and split into two separate factions; the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Hagia Sophia of Constantinople became the new focal point for this Eastern Christianity led by it's Ecumenical Patriarch. For the years come, both sides have worked towards reconciliation and reunification.

First Crusade

In the year 1048 a military conflict began between the Byzantine Empire and the rising Persian power of the Seljuk Turks. This Byzantine-Seljuk War lasted for several decades, and resulted in territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire. In the year 1095, Emperor Alexius I, appealed to the Holy Roman Empire for military assistance. At the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II decided it was in the best interest of the Catholic Church to aid their fellow Christians, and declare war on the Muslims. Although the initial campaign was to defend Constantinople, the crusaders later changed their objective changed to regain the holy land of Jerusalem. This began the first of a long series of Holy Crusades.

The Crusader army consisted of French and Norman knights led by Godfrey of Bouillon, and set off in the year 1096. The first major battle against the Turks was at the Siege of Antioch in 1097, which lasted nearly a year, and was a decisive victory for the Crusaders. This battle brought an end to the war against the Seljuk Turks, however not an end to the crusade. The next objective was to recapture Jerusalem from the Fatimid Caliphate. In the year 1099, during the Siege of Jerusalem, the Crusader army quickly stormed and captured the holy city. This marked the end of the First Crusade and a victory for the Roman Catholic Church, however only the beginning of a long conflict with both the Byzantine Empire and the Muslims. The Crusaders established a presence in Jerusalem, Antioch, Tripoli, and other Middle Eastern cities that would only ignite further conflict.


Second Crusade

After the Siege of Jerusalem, there was a period of peace for several decades, until 1144 when the Muslims conquered the town of Edessa. This led to an outcry in the West, led by Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, and in 1147 Pope Eugene II declared a second crusade to recapture the county of Edessa. The Crusaders armies received heavy opposition from the Turks, and little support from the Byzantines. They won several battles in the Western Portugal territories, Iberian, and Baltic Peninsulas; however lost their campaign in the Middle east, from Damascus to Edessa. This failure in the east, gave the Muslims a new advantage, that would eventually lead to their counter-offensive in the Third Crusade.

Third Crusade

Following their victories during the Second Crusade, Muslims began to unite into a single state intent on reconquering their land from the Crusaders. This unification was led by the chivalrous Saladin, who established the Ayyubid Dynasty in the year 1171. They established an alliance with the Byzantines, who had also grown frustrated with the crusaders. In 1187, Saladin began his offensive campaign in the Battle of Hattin followed shortly after with the Siege of Jerusalem. Balian of Ibelin was forced to surrender the city of Jerusalem over to Saladin and the Muslim armies. This infuriated the Catholic church and the Western Empires who declared a third crusade in the year 1189.

The Third Crusade was headed up by three different armies; The German army of Frederick Barbarossa, the French army of Philip II Augustus, and the English army of King Richard the Lionhearted. The German Army was quickly discouraged when their leader, Barbarossa, drowned on the march to the Holy Land. Richard and Philip II pressed onward towards the Holy Land, and were victorious at the Siege of Acre. Yet after this battle King Philip II had to abandon the crusade due to illness and tensions with King Richard.

King Richard the Lionhearted pressed fervently through the Middle East, winning numerous battles. In the year 1191, Following his victory at the Battle of Arsuf, he established his new headquarters in the city of Jaffa. this began a series of negotiations with Saladin, who was extremely cordial with the Western crusaders. By this point King Richard realized that he would not have sufficient resources to sustain Jerusalem, even if his army had re-captured it. He thus made a treaty with Saladin to allow for trade and a safe return home for his army.

Fourth Crusade

Pope Innocent III declared a fourth crusade in the year 1202, with once again the intent to recapture the holy land of Jerusalem. This crusade was quite significant however, because the crusaders averted their offensive towards the Byzantine Empire, and the capital city of Constantinople. This was due to insufficient funds and a bribe from the deposed Byzantine emperor, Isaac II Angelos, who wanted to return to the throne. The crusader army accepted this offer, and began their campaign on Constantinople, with hopes to reunite it with Rome. Although there was immense tension between the East-West, this action infuriated the Roman Catholic Church, and Pope Innocent III excommunicated the crusader army.

The battle for Constantinople began with the Siege of 1203. The Crusader Army was able to defeat the Byzantine army, and placed Isaac II and his son Alexios IV Angelos on the throne. It wasn't long however, until the Byzantine people rebelled against this invasion and imprisoned Isaac II and Alexios. In 1204, the Crusader Army began a second assault on the city of Constantinople, that led to it's eventual fall. The Crusaders thus established the Latin Empire with Constantinople that became a new state for the Roman Catholic Church. After collecting the spoils of war, Pope Innocent III, recognized this state and welcomed the crusaders back to the church. This Latin Empire lasted until 1261, and was eventually reclaimed by the Byzantines.



Other Crusades

Following the Fourth Crusade, the Christian idea of reclaiming Jerusalem began to lose it's fervor, however there were still many more campaigns that followed. The Fifth Crusade took place from 1213-1221, and resulted in victory for the Egyptians and the Ayyubid Empire. The Sixth Crusade was a diplomatic operation, led by Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire, that successfully relinquished Jerusalem territory to the Crusaders. This territory however was later captured once again by the Muslims, in 1244.

The Frankish Kingdom of King Louis IX waged a Seventh Crusade, in 1248 which was an utmost failure for the crusaders. The Eight Crusade was a continuation of the previous one, and also led to the death of King Louis IX.  In 1271, the Kingdom of France once again waged another war, in the Ninth Crusade, which resulted in another Muslim Victory, and the final significant crusade. In the years to follow the crusader states eventually fell to Muslim control. 

Throughout this medieval period, there were other Christian crusades, with different goals. Such as the Albigensian Crusade in 1209 to eliminate the gnostic movement of Catharism. There were also numerous Northern Crusades in the Scandinavian territories against pagan leaders. One final noteworthy crusade, believed to have taken place in the year 1212, was a youth campaign, known as the Children's Crusade. The intent was for a band of children to peacefully reclaim the Holy Land of Jerusalem, however believed to have ended horrifically.  


The Holy Military Orders

An interesting thing that occurred during these religious wars, was the formation of numerous military orders. Many of these orders were endorsed by the Catholic Church, and consisted of highly trained warriors who fought and defended the Christian faith. One of the most famous of these Holy Orders was the Knights Templar. They were formed in 1119, advocated by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, and rose to prominence during the Third Crusade. They were the most skilled fighters in the battlefield, with a distinctive white mantle and a red cross.The order eventually disbanded in 1314 with the end of the crusades.

Another significant military order were the Teutonic Knights, formed in Germany in 1190. This order also played a critical role throughout the crusades. It's military order eventually declined in the 1400s, however it still remains as a Catholic religious order in present day.

Many of these religious knights were not only skilled fighters, yet also skilled in medical and spiritual practice as well. They played an essential role in conversions and the dispersion of faith through war-torn areas. These warrior-monks were the ultimate weapon of the church, with a duty to save humanity and purge the world from non-believers. This age of war, purging, torture, and corruption is no doubt the darkest period of the Catholic institution.

History of Christianity: The Early Spread

Throughout this Lenten season I've decided to embark on an extensive study on the History of Christianity. It is an extremely intriguing topic; the world's most popular religion, that has endured for over 2000 years. Following the three year ministry of Jesus Christ, a new religious movement quickly began to spread throughout Europe. Based on his teachings, this movement established into an episcopal structure, that became the center of history for over a thousand years.

In this study I want to focus, on the long history of the Christian Church from 33 AD -1800. I will not focus so much on the inner history (biblical canon, councils, and the structure), yet more on it's outer influence. This series will span with the church's foundation, spread, persecutions, divine leaders, inquisitions, years of war, years of renaissance, years of reformation, and the downturn years of the enlightenment. Here is the first segment; a general look at the Early Formation and Spread of Christianity.

The Apostolic Age

Following the crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ the eleven apostles began their own ministry; A Great Commission to spread the word and establish a church based on his teachings. Much of this history is recorded in the New Testament bible, the Acts of the Apostles. The apostles led by Saint Peter, traveled across the middle east, to spread the word, and establish an Apostolic See in cities such as Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.

Throughout the 1st century many of the earliest Christian followers were Jewish converts. James the Just was a critical figure in the Christian-Jewish movement in Jerusalem and became the city's first bishop. There was also however a period of Christian martyrdom, such as in the case of St. Stephen, where people were killed and stoned to death for their Christian beliefs. The stoning of St. Stephen, encouraged Saul of Tarsus to convert from a persecutor into a Christian Missionary, known as Saint Paul the Apostle.

Although he was not an original apostle, Saint Paul, became a very important prophet in this early age. He spread the word throughout the Roman Empire, and bridged the differences between the Christian-Jews and the Gentiles. This bridge was quite a conflict in the early development stages of Christianity, and led to some disagreements between Paul and Peter, regarding the conservation of the Mosaic Law. In the year 50, The Council of Jerusalem, gave Gentiles certain freedoms from Mosaic Law, which significantly opened up the door to new converts. St. Paul's writings and experiences are found in the New Testament and he is considered to be one of the most influential early Christian missionaries.  


Persecutions and the Post-Apostolic Age

The Christian church began it's establishment in the city of Jerusalem, however eventually lost that control due to terrible persecution from both Jewish and Roman officials. Many of the apostles, such as Peter and Paul, were martyred by the Roman emperor Nero, in the late first century. This period of persecution continued into the second century as many Christians refused to worship the Roman emperor, and were put to death, sometimes as a spectacle in the Colosseum.

However the movement continued to spread beyond the Mediterranean Basin. It seemed quite apparent that this new religion was quickly understood and accepted by the general public. The teachings of Christ, were quite revolutionary and were accepted by the people as the total truth. They appealed to a much wider audience, making sense of everything from life to death. For this reason the spread and success of Christianity was quite inevitable.


Constantine the Great

In the year 311, the Roman emperor Galerius brought an end to Christian persecutions. He was then preceded by Constantine the Great, who was the first Roman emperor to accept Christianity. This entirely changed the scope of the movement, and suddenly the church was at the highest level of authority. Constantine played a very active role in administering the church, the Nicene Creed, and the establishment of the sacred city of Constantinople. This was a significant turning point for the Christian faith which would later become the official Roman religion in the year 380.

By the fifth century, Rome had become the new center for Christianity and the papacy. The cities of Jerusalem, Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, also held special prestige. However while Christianity was flourishing in the Middle East and the Mediterranean Basin, the Roman empire itself was diminishing. This was due to a disintegrating government and economy that that could no longer withstand Germanic opposition. During this time, Augustine of Hippo, developed an influential concept, that Christianity did not need an earthly city yet already had a spiritual city in God. The might of the Roman empire eventually collapsed and was split into Germanic control on the west, and the Byzantine Empire on the east. Christianity however endured and continued to spread on both ends.




Monasticism

In the third century, a new practice of independent spiritual seclusion, known as monasticism emerged from the deserts of Egypt. Saint Anthony the Great, was one of the first to embark on this lifestyle, and is considered the father of monasticism. The essential purpose of this hermit lifestyle was to grow closer to God, interpret the scriptures, and better understand the teachings of Christ. From this medieval practice, came new theology, philosophy, leadership, and divine inspiration.

In the fourth and fifth century, Saint Basil the Great and Saint Benedict of Nursia established a new style of communal monasticism. Monks were thus organized in communities, where they lived, worked, and prayed in monasteries. These monasteries served as a university for the church, where monks would spend their days studying and understanding the scriptures of Christianity. Many notable monks came from this practice, and provided influential theories and leadership to the Christian faith, such as Pope Gregory the Great.


Western Expansion

With the collapse of the Roman Empire, much of Western Europe was now a liberated free-for-all which lead to a chaotic disorder of barbaric tribes. Tribes of Anglo-Saxons, Celtics, Germanics, Franks, Goths, Slavics, and Vikings began to disperse the territory through ruthless pillaging and war. It is no wonder this period of time, has been referred to as the Dark Ages. However in the midst of this madness, the Christian church grew to its prominence and brought light to the disorder.

It was Pope Gregory the Great who initiated a campaign of successful missions to the western tribes. The hope was to teach and convert the Gentile barbarians towards Christianity. One of the most significant of these missionaries was, Augustine of Canterbury who was successful in converting the Anglo-Saxons. Another important conversion was of Clovis, the first King of the Franks. This period of barbaric conversion and Christian expansion, gave way to a new era of European culture, ushered in by the Great Charlemagne.



The Holy Roman Empire

In the late 8th century, the Frankish King Charlemagne began a military campaign in South Italy. He fought in the name of Christianity against the southern Germanic Tribes, Saxons, Byzantines, and Saracens. By the year 800 he was warmly received by the Roman Catholic Church, and Pope Leo III crowned him as the new Emperor of the Romans. Charlemagne thus felt it was his duty to return glory to the Western Roman Empire with Christianity at it's foundation. He inspired a new era of art, religion, culture, and a European identity during the Carolingian Renaissance.

The Holy Roman Empire, however was not officially formed until the year 962, under the leadership of the German King Otto I. By this point, however, it had already become the ultimate power in Central Europe, fully integrated with the Catholic institution. This empire served as the military and economic might of the Catholic Church for nearly 1000 years, until the Napoleonic Wars of 1806.