Top 50 Favorite Musicians

After watching the Rolling Stones play live in Cleveland with my dad and brother I walked away quite musically inspired. These guys have been performing music for over 60 years now, and at the age of 80 they still put on a great show. In the days leading up to the show I made a deep dive into their music to prepare for the show. I first decided I wanted to put a list together about the Stone's music, but then I also briefly got into some Bob Marley prior to this, and wanted to do the same. So the idea evolved beyond the Rolling Stones and into a general update of my 2015 list on my favorite musicians (Top 50 Music Artists). I don't think it should be too different, however this time I'm going to add my favorite songs of each artist.

50. Velvet Underground

• 
  Genre: Psychedelic Rock
  
• Origin: New York City, USA
• Years Active: 1964-1973
• Previous Position: New Entry
• Reason Why: I love mellow psychedelic music as you will see in this list and that's definitely the case for the Velvet Underground. Lou Reed captures the essence of the 1960s counterculture with his experimental art rock that is still to this day ideal chill music. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Pale Blue Eyes (Played in the movie Adventureland)
2. Sunday Morning
3. I'll Be Your Mirror
4. Sweet Jane
5. Heroine

49. Edith Piaf

• 
  Genre: French Cabaret
• Origin: Paris, France
  
• Years Active: 1935-1963
• Previous Position: 39
• Reason Why: I discovered her music back in 2010 and ever since she remains the iconic voice of French music for me. I don't understand a word she's saying but it all sounds so lovely and vintage, as if it were playing in one of those aged carousels. 
• Favorite Songs
1. La Vie en Rose
2. La Foule
3. Tu Es Partout (played in Saving Private Ryan)
4. Padam Padam
5. Hymne a l'amour

48. Sia    

• 
  Genre: Pop, Electronica
• Origin: Adelaide, Australia
• Years Active: 1997-present
• Previous Position: New Entry
  
• Reason Why: With her iconic hairdo that covers her face, Sia has an incredibly powerful voice.  The Australian vocalist has produced a number of hits over the past few years that really pump things up. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Chandelier 
2. Titanium (featuring in David Guetta's song)
3. Wild Ones (featuring in Flo Rida's song)
4. Elastic Heart
5. Unstoppable

47. ACDC

• Genre: Hard Rock
• 
  Origin: Sydney, Australia
• Years Active: 1973-present
  
• Previous Position: New Entry
• Reason Why: This Australian Rock band has so many great hits. I'm usually not too crazy about heavy rock or metal, but this music takes me back to my high school weight-room. It's just perfect music to get hype to.
• Favorite Songs
1. Thunderstruck
2. Back in Black
3. You Shook me All Night Long
4. Highway to Hell
5. TNT

46. Daft Punk

• 
  Genre: Electronica
• Origin: Paris, France
• Years Active: 1993-2021
  
• Previous Position: 41
• Reason Why: It reminds me of my brothers, and takes me back to my college and post college party days. It's just fun music to dance and party to. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Around the World
2. One More Time
3. Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger
4. Verdis Quo
5. Get Lucky

45. Sam Cooke

• 
  Genre: Soul, R&B
• Origin: Mississippi, US
• Years Active: 1951-1964
  
• Previous Position: New Entry
• Reason Why: Such a soulful and jubilant voice, that echoes the 1950s-1960s social period in America. His career was cut short by a tragic homicide, but he produced so many lasting hits.
• Favorite Songs
1. Another Saturday Night
2. Bring it on Home to Me
3. What a Wonderful World
4. A Change is Gonna Come
5. Chain Gang

44. Enigma

• Genre: New Age, Electronica
• Origin: Germany
• 
  Years Active: 1990-present
  
• Previous Position: 40
• Reason Why: This new age music has a nostalgic quality for me taking me back to the 1990s and reminding me of my mom and childhood at Park Avenue. It's very relaxing and ambient music. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Return to Innocence
2. Sadeness
3. Beyond the Invisble
4. Mea Culpa
5. Deja Vu

43. Billie Eilish

• 
  Genre: Pop, Electronic
• Origin: Los Angeles, USA
• Years Active: 2015-present
  
• Previous Position: New Entry
• Reason Why: She has such an original sound with her soft and seductive whispering voice. Her music has a modern electronic sound to it and she has already produced many big hits at such a young age. 
• Favorite Songs
1. When the Party's Over
2. Everything I wanted
3. What was I made For
4. Bad Guy
5. Ocean Eyes

42. Johnny Cash

• Genre: Country
  
• 
  Origin: Kingsland, Arkansas
• Years Active: 1954-2003
• Previous Position: 42
• Reason Why: To me he is the embodiment of country music and the only true country artist you'll see on my list. He has such a deep, passionate, and iconic voice that has produced many classic hits. I prefer some of his duets with June Carter Cash and Bob Dylan. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Folsom Prison Blues
2. It Ain't Me Babe (Duet with June Carter Cash)
3. I Walk the Line
4. Girl from the North Country (Duet with Bob Dylan)
5. Cocaine Blues

41. Jefferson Airplane

• 
  Genre: Psychedelic Rock
  
• Origin: San Francisco, USA
• Years Active: 1965-1973
• Previous Position: New Entry
• Reason Why: They were the iconic hippie band from San Francisco with a rocking psychedelic sound. Led by the beautiful Grace Slick, this group has a number of big hits throughout the 1960s-1970s. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Embryonic Journey
2. White Rabbit
3. Volunteers (Played in the movie Forrest Gump)
4. Somebody to Love
5. Today

40. Post Malone

• 
  Genre: Hip Hop, Electronic Pop
• Origin: Syracuse, New York
• Years Active: 2011-present
  
• Previous Position: New Entry
• Reason Why: Another modern entry alongside Billie Eilish and Sia, that captures a new era of electronic pop. Post Malone has an incredible voice, with many hits. His music can range from country to grunge to hip hop to electronica.  
• Favorite Songs
1. Sunflower
2. Circles
3. Candy Paint
4. Congratulations
5. I'm Gonna Be

39. Phoenix

• Genre: Indie Rock
• 
  Origin: Versailles, France
  
• Years Active: 1995-present
• Previous Position: 29
• Reason Why: They remind me of my post-college years especially living in Chicago. I remember that song 1901 was my ringtone for most of my time living in Chicago. They have so many other hits that really capture that Indie Rock movement of the 2010s.   
• Favorite Songs:
1. 1901
2. Lisztomania
3. Too Young (Played in the movie Shallow Hal and Lost in Translation)
4. Long Distance Call
5. Fences

38. Neil Young

• 
  Genre: Folk Rock
• Origin: Toronto, Canada
  
• Years Active: 1963-present
• Previous Position: 36
• Reason Why: Just like Bob Dylan he has such a squeaky voice that it is actually good and so original. Add some good folk rhythm guitar, harmonica, and great lyrics and you have the iconic Neil Young.
• Favorite Songs
1. Harvest Moon 
2. Heart of Gold 
3. Down by the River
4. Southern Man
5. Old Man

37. Bon Iver

• Genre: Indie Folk Rock
• Origin: Wisconsin, USA
  
  
  
• Years Active: 2006-present
• Previous Position: 32
• Reason Why: They have such a soft mellow rock sound, a fusion of folk and Indie electronic. The lead vocalist Justin Vernon has such a calm peaceful voice, that it's ideal music for a relaxing day outside.    
• Favorite Songs
1. For Emma
2. Rosyln
3. Stacks
4. Flume
5. Skinny Love

36. Billie Holliday

• Genre: Jazz
• 
  Origin: Philadelphia, USA
• Years Active: 1930-1959
• Previous Position: 44
• Reason Why: She has that classic American Jazz sound that really embodied the 1930s-1950s. Her voice is so soothing with a bit of melancholy, perfect for a lazy day around the house. 
• Favorite Songs
1. All of Me
2. Solitude
3. Am I Blue
4. Easy Living
5. I'll Be Seeing You

35. Paul Simon

• Genre: Folk Rock
• 
  Origin: New Jersey, USA
• Years Active: 1956-present
  
• Previous Position: 35
• Reason Why: Separate from his great run with Garfunkel he has had an incredible solo career. His voice is so distinct and has produced many great worldly hits with solid lyrics as well. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Diamonds on the Soles of Her Shoes
2. Rewrite
3. Graceland
4. You can call me Al
5. Mother and Child Reunion

34. The Who

• Genre: Hard Rock
• 
  Origin: London, England
  
• Years Active: 1964-1982; 1999-present
• Previous Position: 30
• Reason Why: Their yet another iconic British invasion band from the 1960s, probably the 3rd most significant behind the Beatles and Rolling Stones. Roger Daltry and Pete Townshend are a true power duo and have produced many great classic rock hits.
• Favorite Songs
1. Substitute
2. I Can't Explain
3. Baby O'Reily
4. Won't get Fooled Again
5. Happy Jack

33. Nelly

• Genre: Rap
• 
  Origin: Texas, USA
  
• Years Active: 1993-present
• Previous Position: 33
• Reason Why: I don't listen to hip hop as much as I use to, but it was the first music I really got into during my high school years. The hip hop of Nelly was great party music and made me want to cruise in my car, feel cool, go clubbing, and chase girls. He produced many great hits during the early 2000s which was an exciting time through high school and into college. It still to this day has a nostalgic quality for me. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Ride with Me
2. Air Force Ones
3. St. Louie
4. Dilemma (Featuring Kelly Rowland)
5. Hot in Herre

32. Glenn Miller

• Genre: Swing Jazz
• 
  Origin: Clarinda, Iowa
• Years Active: 1923-1944
  
• Previous Position: New Entry
• Reason Why: He's got that iconic big band swing music of the 1920s-1930s. In contrast to most melancholic jazz music, Glenn Miller's work is quite uplifting, positive, and cheerful. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Moonlight Serenade
2. In The Mood
3. Sing, Sing, Sing
4. Pennsylvania 6-5000
5. Chattanooga Choo Choo

31. Wilco

• Genre: Indie Rock
• Origin: Chicago, Illinois
• 
  Years Active: 1994-present
  
• Previous Position: 27
• Reason Why: In my post college years living in Fort Wayne, Chicago, and Indy I discovered the newer sound of Indie Rock and Wilco was probably at the forefront. With their lead man Jeff Tweedy they have a modern grunge electronic sounding rock with some great guitar.  
• Favorite Songs
1. Impossible Germany
2. Jesus Etc
3. War on War
4. California Stars
5. You and I

30. Ray Charles

• 
  Genre: R&B, Soul
• Origin: Georgia, USA
  
• Years Active: 1947-2004
• Previous Position: 21
• Reason Why: He's one of the first legendary R&B musicians who made his rise back in the 1950s during an age of segregation. His voice is full of great passion and soul that truly encaptivates his work. 
• Favorite Songs
1. I've Got a Woman
2. I Can't Stop Loving You
3. Georgia on my Mind
4. What'd I Say
5. Unchain my Heart

29. Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young

• Genre: Folk Rock
• 
  Origin: Los Angeles, California
  
• Years Active: 1968-2015
• Previous Position: 26
• Reason Why: It's just that mellow folk rock style of the 1960s-1970s that I love and these guys truly represent that. Their harmony is spot on consisting of an an all star line up of great guitarists and vocalists.
• Favorite Songs
1. Suite Judy Blue Eyes
2. Teach Your Children
3. Ohio
4. Helplessly Hoping
5. Wooden Ships

28. Bruce Springsteen

• Genre: Heartland Rock
• Origin: New Jersey, USA
• 
  Years Active: 1964-present
  
• Previous Position: 46 (18 spot jump!! Biggest jump on the list)
• Reason Why: Bruce is no doubt the boss of American heartland rock, that just takes you into that countryside living. He's got such a rich voice and is backed by a rock and roll ensemble known as the E Street Band. He's slowly climbed the ranks for me over the past 10 years, with many feel good songs. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Born to Run
2. I'm on Fire
3. Glory Days
4. Pay me My Money Down
5. Hungry Heart

27. Jack Johnson

• 
  Genre: Surf Rock
  
• Origin: Hawaii, USA
• Years Active: 1992-present
• Previous Position: 34
• Reason Why: He's got such an original sound, a mellow Hawaiian soft rock style often referred to as "surf-rock". I discovered him during my college years, and it was just great music to listen and chill with friends. It's nostalgic music but still very enjoyable, relaxing, and uplifting. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Upside Down
2. Bubble Toes
3. A Pirate Looks at Forty (Cover with Dave Matthews)
4. If I had Eyes
5. Better Together

26. Frank Sinatra

• Genre: Jazz, Swing, Pop
• 
  Origin: New Jersey, USA
  
• Years Active: 1935-1995
• Previous Position: 25
• Reason Why: He's the epitome of crooning music, with his sophisticated style and suave voice. His music embodies a historical and cultural element of America throughout the 1940s-1960s. It's total easy listening jazzy music to enjoy that makes you just want to snap your fingers. He also has some great classic Christmas tunes. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Fly me to the Moon
2. Strangers in the Night
3. My Way
4. Luck be a Lady
5. New York, New York

25. Beach Boys

• 
  Genre: Surf Rock, Psychedelic Rock
• Origin: California, USA
• Years Active: 1961-preset
• Previous Position: 23
• Reason Why: Their the true fathers of summertime surf music, which not only epitomizes the hippie age but also American culture in general. Their music can be fun loving tropical themes, but also a dose of good psychedelic tracks, most notably in Pet Sounds. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Do it Again
2. In My Room
   
3. Good Vibrations
4. Pet Sounds
5. You Still Believe in Me
6. God Only Knows
7. Wouldn't it Be Nice
8. Sloop John B
9. Darlin
10. Don't Worry Baby

24. Lemon Jelly

• 
  Genre: Electronic Downtempo
• Origin: London, England
• Years Active: 1998-2008
• Previous Position: 17
  
• Reason Why: It's that mellow trance-like electronic sound known as downtempo that I love about this group. It takes me back to the summer of 2012 where I really began to transcend and re-discovered running and a simple living lifestyle. 
• Favorite Songs
1. A Tune for Jack
2. Space Walk
3. Nice Weather for Ducks
4. Pushy
5. Closer
6. Rambling Man
7. Stay With You
8. Come
9. The Curse of Ka'Zar
10. Elements

23. 112

• Genre: Hip Hop, R&B
• 
  Origin: Atlanta, USA
  
• Years Active: 1993-Present
• Previous Position: 18
• Reason Why: This is nostalgic high school music for me and was my favorite band throughout those years. I'd jam it in my Ford Escort and sing it to the top of my lungs with my friends (most notably their album Part III). To this day it's great hip music ideal for a dance party. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Only You (Featuring the Notorious BIG)
2. Dance with Me
3. Your Letter
4. Cupid
5. All I Want is You
6. It's Over Now
7. Peaches & Cream
8. Missing You
9. Don't Hate Me
10. Smile

22. Richard Wagner

• Genre: Romantic Classical
• 
  Origin: Leipzig, Germany
• Years Active: 1813-1883
  
• Previous Position: 20
• Reason Why: I know it might be considered strange to have classical musicians in this list, but I truly enjoy classical music and hence they stand in my ranking. I recently discovered Wagner a little over ten years ago, and found that he is so much more than his iconic Ride of the Valkyries. His music embodies true romantic mythological and emotional elements that hit at the core. I've heard his beautiful music in so many of my favorite films. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Parsifal (Played in the film To the Wonder)
2. Das Rheingold (Played in the film A New World)
3. Tannhauser Overture
4. Lohengrin: Prelude
5. Tristan und Isolde (Played in the film Melancholia)
6. Siegfriend Idyll
7. Ride of the Valkyries
8. Das Rheingold: Entry of the Gods into Valhalla
9. Gotterdammerung Funeral Music
10. The Flying Dutchman

21. Rolling Stones

• Genre: Hard Rock, Blues Rock
• Origin: London, England
• 
  Years Active: 1962-Present
  
• Previous Position: 28
• Reason Why: They've always been considered the fathers of Rock and Roll (maybe a step behind the Beatles but the fact of the matter is they have long outlived the Beatles). Led by Mic Jagger and Keith Richards they have so many great hits. Some of their songs transfuse rock and roll with blues and country elements. Just seeing them last weekend in concert was very inspiring and no doubt has bumped them up a few pegs for me. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Street Fighting Man
2. Time Waits for No One
3. Gimme Shelter
4. Sympathy for the Devil
5. Beast of Burden
6. She's a Rainbow
7. Honky Tonky Women
8. Wild Horses
9. Start me Up
10. Tumbling Dice

20. Vampire Weekend

• Genre: Indie Rock
• 
  Origin: New York City, USA
• Years Active: 2006-present
  
• Previous Position: 22
• Reason Why: Another great Indie rock band that I discovered in my post college years, especially whilst living in Fishers in 2010. They have a worldly electronic sound which is quite upbeat and uplifting rock music. For some reason it reminds me of the summertime. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Diplomat's Son
2. A-Punk
3. Walcott
4. M79
5. White Sky
6. Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa
7. Giving up the Gun
8. Run
9. The Kids Don't Stand a Chance
10. Holiday

19. Carlos Santana

• Genre: Latin Rock, Blues Rock
• 
  Origin: San Francisco, USA
  
• Years Active: 1965-present
• Previous Position: 31 (12 spot jump!)
• Reason Why: It's that incredible guitar skill from Santana with that Latin Rhythm that makes this one of my favorites. He especially holds a special place for me having seen him live in concert back in 2005 with friends. He's got many classic hits from the 60s-70s, as well as a resurgence period during the late 1990s. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Soul Sacrifice
2. Black Magic Woman
3. Maria Maria 
4. Oye Come Va
5. Evil Ways
6. Smooth (Featuring Rob Thomas)
7. Corazon Espinado
8. Samba Pa Ti
9. She's Not There
10. Europa

18. Enya

• Genre: Celtic New Age
• 
  Origin: Gweedore, Ireland
• Years Active: 1980-present
  
• Previous Position: 19
• Reason Why: Her beautiful ambient New Age style is total bliss. It takes me back to my high school days in religion class or just days around the house at Park Avenue. Her music is so calm and peaceful and to this day I enjoy it for good relaxation. She also provided some great tracks to one of my all time favorite movies Lord of the Rings. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Only Time
2. May it Be (From the Lord of the Rings Soundtrack)
3. Aniron (From the Lord of the Rings Soundtrack
4. Book of Days
5. Orinoco Flow
6. Caribbean Blue
7. Wild Child
8. Storms in Africa
9. Watermark
10. A Day without Rain

17. John Lennon

• Genre: Folk Rock
• Origin: Liverpool, England
• Years Active: 1956-1980
• 
  Previous Position: 11
• Reason Why: He was always my favorite Beatle, and after he went solo he produced many more classic songs. I think it was towards the end of my senior year in college that I discovered his solo work with Yoko Ono. His lyrics are profound, with an angelic voice he was truly a prophet for peace.  
  
• Favorite Songs
1. Jealous Guy
2. Hold On
3. Watching the Wheels 
4. Imagine
5. #9 Dream
6. Mother
7. Give Peace a Chance
8. Beautiful Boy
9. Stand By Me
10. Working Class Hero

16. ATB

• Genre: Trance, Electronic
• Origin: Freiberg, Germany
• 
  Years Active: 1993-Present
  
• Previous Position: 12
• Reason Why: Hands down my favorite techno artist, with his iconic trance sound. It takes me back to my college days and has always been a go-to running music or just chill music. I even saw him live in concert in Chicago 2009 right before leaving for Costa Rica.
• Favorite Songs
1. Circular Symmetry
2. 9PM (Till I Come)
3. Don't Stop
4. Long Way Home
5. Let You Go
6. Ecstasy
7. You're Not Alone
8. Enigmatic Encounter
9. Marrakech
10. The Summer

15. Fleetwood Mac

• 
  Genre: Folk Rock
• Origin: London, England
  
• Years Active: 1967-2002
• Previous Position: 24 (9 spot jump!)
• Reason Why: It's that lead vocals from Stevie Nicks that does it for me. They have a great soft folk rock sound with many great hits.  
• Favorite Songs
1. Silver Springs
2. Albatross
3. Landslide
4. Dreams
5. Songbird
6. Never Going Back Again
7. The Chain
8. Everywhere
9. Say You Love Me
10. Tusk

14. Tchaikovsky

• 
  Genre: Romantic Classical
• Origin: Votkinsk, Russia
• Years Active: 1840-1893
  
• Previous Position: 15
• Reason Why: It's just so many great famous classic works, especially his Nutcracker ballet that is quite popular during Christmas time. His work is the embodiment of Russian culture that I have come to admire over the years. It's all so lovely like the ideal lullaby you can just drift off into a dream world.
• Favorite Songs
1. The Nutcracker Suite
2. Swan Lake Moderato
3. Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy (Nutcracker)
4. Waltz of the Flowers (Nutcracker)
5. Arabian Dance (Nutcracker)
6. 1812 Overture
7. Allegro con Spirito
8. Dance of the Reed-Flutes (Nutcracker)
9. The Sleeping Beauty
10. The Black Swan Andante

13. The Doors

• Genre: Psychedelic Rock, Blues Rock
• Origin: Los Angeles, USA
• 
  Years Active: 1965-1973
  
• Previous Position: 13
• Reason Why: Once again another great psychedelic rock that captures the counterculture movement and notably the California scene. Jim Morrison was a drunkard but also a great poet with a great voice. Their music is a favorite bluesy psychedelic go-to for me.
• Favorite Songs
1. Indian Summer
2. Riders of the Storm
3. People are Strange
4. The End
5. Love Street
6. LA Woman
7. Break on Through to the Other Side
8. Roadhouse Blues
9. Hello I Love You
10. Love Her Madly

12. Cranberries

• Genre: Celtic Rock, Alternative
• 
  Origin: Limerick, Ireland
  
• Years Active: 1989-2019
• Previous Position: 16
• Reason Why: It's the beautiful Celtic voice of their lead vocalist Dolores O'Riordan. It has a grunge alternative sound I usually don't care for, and yet somehow I find many of their songs so inspiring. It has a nostalgic quality for me back in high school I would listen to their music before a big soccer match or a track meet. I still enjoy their music to this day.
• Favorite Songs
1. Dreams
2. No Need to Argue
3. Dreaming my Dreams
4. Zombie
5. When You're Gone
6. Just my Imagination
7. Pretty
8. Ode to my Family
9. Linger
10. Promises

11. Creedence Clearwater Revival

• 
  Genre: Swamp Rock
• Origin: California, USA
  
• Years Active: 1959-1972
• Previous Position: 14
• Reason Why: It's that original swamp rock sound, led by John Fogerty with his strong rustic voice. He belts out each song, with great harmony and rhythm. Just like the Doors, their band was short lived with only a few albums, but each were loaded with great hits that still jam today. Their music is iconic for anything to do with Vietnam as soon in the films Apocalypses Now or Forrest Gump. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Have you Ever seen the Rain
2. Midnight Special
3. Bad Moon Rising
4. Fortunate Son (Played in Forrest Gump)
5. Suzie Q (Played in Apoclaypse Now)
6. Looking Out my Back Door
7. Run Through the Jungle
8. Down on the Corner
9. Green River
10. Lodi

10. Mozart

• Genre: Romantic Classical
• 
  Origin: Vienna, Austria
  
• Years Active: 1756-1791
• Previous Position: 10
• Reason Why: He's hands down my favorite classical composer. It began as a child really when we would watch the film Amadeus around Christmas time at grandma's house. Mozart's music is the definition of true beauty.
• Favorite Songs
1. Serenade for Winds (Played in the film Amadeus)
2. Piano Concerto in D Minor K 466 (Main theme of the film Amadeus)
3. Concerto for Flute and Harp K 299 (Played in film Amadeus; Salieri gets lost in sheet music)
4. Piano Concerto in E Flat K 482(Played in Amadeus; Piano in the park)
5. Piano Sonata No 11 Tema
6. Piano Concerto No 21 K 467
7. Symphony No 40 K. 550
8. The Marriage of Figaro Ah Tutti Contenti
9. Piano Sonata No 16 K 545 (Sonata Facile)
10. Adagio in E Major K 261

9. Michael Jackson

• 
  Genre: Pop, Rock
• Origin: Indiana, USA 
• Years Active: 1964-2009
• Previous Position: 6
• Reason Why: It's got a nostalgic quality for me, one of the first popular musicians I ever got into (even before high school). It's got an upbeat dance rhythm carried by MJ's amazing voice, his smooth dance moves, and so many great hits. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Man in the Mirror
   
2. Smooth Criminal
3. Don't Stop Til You Get Enough
4. Ben (Jackson 5)
5. Rock with You
6. I'll be There (Jackson 5)
7. Billie Jean
8. You are not Alone
9. Wanna be Starting Something
10. The Girl is Mine

8. Simon and Garfunkel

• Genre: Folk Rock
• Origin: New York, USA
• 
  Years Active: 1963-1970
  
• Previous Position: 7
• Reason Why: It's that incredible harmony that really captures the folk scene of the 1960s. Add some great vocals from Garfunkel and great guitar and lyrics from Paul Simon and it's one of the best musical duos in history. They have so many great hits.
• Favorite Songs
1. April Come she Will
2. The Only Living Boy in New York (Played in the film Garden State)
3. Dangling Conversation
4. Cecilia
5. I am a Rock
6. America (Played in the film Almost Famous)
7. Bookends Theme
8. Bye Bye Love
9. The Boxer
10. Old Friends

7. Pink Floyd

• 
  Genre: Psychedelic Rock
• Origin: London, England
• Years Active: 1965-1994
  
• Previous Position: 8
• Reason Why: It's that psychedelic rock sound that can often put you in a total trance. Some of their songs are rocking while others are just downright chill as can be. Their album Dark Side of the Moon is total perfection. I use to have them higher up on the list, but while they have many good songs, they also have quite a few bad abstract songs.
• Favorite Songs
1. Us and Them
2. Breathe
3. The Great Gig in the Sky
4. Goodbye Blue Sky
5. Fearless
6. Comfortably Numb
7. A Pillow of Winds
8. Echoes
9. Shine on you Crazy Diamond
10. Any Colour You Like

6. Bob Marley

• 
  Genre: Reggae
• Origin: Nine Mile, Jamaica
• Years Active: 1962-1980
• Previous Position: 9
  
• Reason Why: He's got such an original sound, the only reggae musician I have on this list. He sang of love and unity and alongside John Lennon, can truly be regarded as a prophet for peace. He has so many great chill songs ideal for the summertime.
• Favorite Songs
1. No Woman No Cry
2. Redemption Song
3. Stir it Up
4. Kaya
5. Turn your Lights Down Low
6. Time will Tell
7. Selassie is the Chapel
8. War
9. Positive Vibration
10. Rastaman Chant

5. Led Zeppelin

• Genre: Hard Rock, Psychedelic Rock
• 
  Origin: London, England
  
• Years Active: 1968-1980
• Previous Position: 4
• Reason Why: So many great songs carried by Robert Plant's powerful voice and the great guitarwork of Jimmy Page. To me they are the kings of the 1970s picking up where the Beatles and the Stones left off in the 1960s. Their music can be heavy at times but also very chill and psychedelic. Their music also has a fantasy mystical element to it, with lots of references to Lord of the Rings, which I also love. 
• Favorite Songs
1. Going to California
2. That's the Way (Played in the film Almost Famous)
3. Bron-Yr-Aur
4. Boogie with Stu
5. D'yer Mak'er
6. Over the Hills and Far Away
7. Misty Mountain Hop
8. Kashmir
9. Houses of the Holy
10. The Battle of Evermore

4. Coldplay

• 
  Genre: Indie Rock
• Origin: London, England 
  
• Years Active: 1997-present
• Previous Position: 5
• Reason Why: Alongside Dave Matthews Band they are my favorite recent rock band of the last 20 years. I discovered them in college and to this day love every one of their songs. Seeing them in concert in the summer of 2006 was an unforgettable experience. Carried by Chris Martin's incredible voice they have a wide range of psychedelic, melancholic ones to upbeat jubilant ones.
• Favorite Songs
1. Fix You
2. Strawberry Swing
3. Lost
4. A Sky Full of Stars
5. Till Kingdom Come
6. The Scientist
7. Sparks (Played in the film Wedding Crashers)
8. Viva la Vida
9. Speed of Sound
10. Spies

3. Bob Dylan

• 
  Genre: Folk Rock
• Origin: Minnesota, USA
• Years Active: 1957-present
• Previous Position: 3
  
• Reason Why: He's got such an original sound, a squeaky voice that actually sounds good. He's produced so many great folk hits as well as some masterful poetic lyrics. He is a father of the protest hippie movement from the 1960s and his career has spanned almost 70 years. I'm glad I got to see him in person even tho his performance was a bit underwhelming. I love so many of his songs, and it seems I keep discovering new ones.  
• Favorite Songs
1. Girl from the North Country
2. Don't Think Twice it's Alright
3. Boots of Spanish Leather
4. Moonshiner
5. It Aint me Babe
6. Visions of Johanna
7. He Was a Friend of Mine
8. Wigwam
9. Like a Rolling Stone
10. Forever Young

2. Dave Matthews Band

• Genre: Folk Rock, Jam Rock
• 
  Origin: Virginia, USA
• Years Active: 1991-present
• Previous Position: 2
  
• Reason Why: They were the music of my college years and beyond with so many great memories. Alongside the Beatles, I enjoy every single one of the DMB songs. I've seen them twice in concert, both incredible shows. I recently wrote a post on my favorite DMB songs, so I won't get into too much detail here and will just use that same list.  
• Favorite Songs
1. The Maker
2. Proudest Monkey
3. Warehouse
4. Two Step
5. Bartender
6. Lover Lay Down
7. The Stone
8. A Pirate Looks at Forty (Featuring Jack Johnson)
9. Cry Freedom
10. Spoon

1. The Beatles

• 
  Genre: Folk Rock, Psychedelic Rock
• Origin: Liverpool, England
  
• Years Active: 1960-1970
• Previous Position: 1
• Reason Why: Their my undisputed favorite musician for probably the past 20 years now. Dating as far back as a kid I came to know them, but it wasn't until college that I came to understand them. Their music is perfect on so many levels, so very versatile ranging from folk, blues, heavy to my favorite genre of psychedelic rock. Although I don't listen to them as much as I use to, anytime I hear their music it's total bliss. While I'm only going to list ten songs here, I should probably make a list of their top 50 just as I did for DMB. 
• Favorite Songs
1. A Day in the Life
2. Flying
3. Across the Universe
4. Two of Us
5. In My Life
6. Rocky Raccoon
7. Strawberry Fields
8. Girl
9. Sun King
10. I'm Only Sleeping 

Honorable Mention

• Van Morrison
• Tom Petty (Omitted from last list)
• Vivaldi (Omitted from last list)
• Fun. (Omitted from last list)
• Marvin Gaye (Omitted from last list)
• Rokysopp (Omitted from last list)
• BB King (Omitted from last list)
• Bach (Omitted from last list)
• R Kelly (Omitted from last list)
• Elvis Presley
• My Morning Jacket
• Jagged Edge
• 50 Cent/G-Unit
• Nora Jones
• Sting/Police
• Smashing Pumpkins

New Additions to the List

• Velvet Underground
• ACDC
• Sia
• Sam Cooke
• Jefferson Airplane
• Billie Eilish
• Post Malone
• Glenn Miller

Book Review: Mexican Gothic

Within this Mexican phase, I searched for a good book that could take me deep into the culture and history of Mexico. I usually gravitate towards a historical fiction, but this time I was drawn to a horror genre that had received great reviews. The book Mexican Gothic by Silvia Moreno-Garcia was published in 2022 and has won worldwide acclaim as a best-seller. I was a little hesitant at first, looking for something more to do with the Aztecs or maybe the revolution, but I was eventually drawn to the 1950s rural setting of Mexico. I am quite satisfied with this selection and found it to be a fairly easy and enjoyable read. 

The front cover certainly has a seductive charm with it's beautiful female heroine dressed in a purple dress holding flowers. Some anticipating thoughts that came to mind before I began was something on par with an Alfred Hitchcock film, such as Psycho (where a beautiful woman is driven to some sort of madness). I later discovered that the setting had to do with a haunted mansion and thus reminded me of Jayne Eyre or Wuthering Heights. I don't think I've ever really read a proper horror book before but this one did have some appeal. With its modern writing it was easy to follow along and to try and guess at what was actually happening. The true appeal to the book is it's feisty and fearless protagonist Noemi Taboada. 

Plot Summary

The story begins in the 1950s Mexico City, where a wealthy socialite named Noemi Taboada is called home from a party by her father. Her father gives Noemi a letter from her cousin Catalina who appears to be in poor condition. He also insists that Noemi go visit her cousin and see what is upsetting her. Noemi unwillingly agrees to visit her cousin, who lives in a mansion in the fictional town of El Triunfo. When she arrives to the house, she is surprised by it's gloomy and somber atmosphere. The house is on top of a hill, surrounded by forests, creeks, and a cemetery. It is referred to as High Place and from the onset it appears Noemi has walked into the cliché haunted mansion. 

She receives a cold welcome from the Doyle family, beginning with the elder patriarch Howard Doyle, his grouchy niece Florence (who manages the mansion), and his son Virgil (who is married to Catalina). The only family member that shows her any kindness is the son of Florence, named Francis, who has a mysterious aloof side to him. When Noemi finally encounters her cousin she finds nothing too unusual aside from Catalina's sleepiness which the family doctor declares as an effect of tuberculosis. However when Noemi visits the town, she meets an old lady named Marta Duval who tells her the shocking story of the Doyles. The Doyle family experienced a terrible tragedy when several members were killed by Howard's daughter Ruth who then committed suicide. 

Noemi begins to understand why everyone is so morose however she keeps a high-spirited attitude and befriends the isolated Francis. She later begins to experience some strange nightmares that appear as if the house is talking to her. Noemi then returns to the town to get some strong medicine for Catalina. The medicine backfires on Catalina, who has a seizure, and Florence and Virgil quickly blame Noemi for this. From that point on the hostility only continues to grow and Noemi begins to wish to leave the mansion. However she also does not want to abandon her cousin in this state, and begins to develop a plan to escape with her. 

This plan is suddenly halted when Virgil and Florence force Noemi to ingest some of Howard's fungus. Noemi experiences a surreal trance where she realizes that the house and the Doyle family are controlled by a network of fungi. Howard has mastered this network and has lived for the past 300 years by taking over other bodies of his family. Furthermore once the fungi is in the body it is impossible to leave the mansion, which suddenly makes Noemi's situation more dire. The family insist that Noemi marry Francis to preserve the Doyle lineage.

Luckily Francis who has developed feelings for Noemi, comes to her rescue and gives her a potion that neutralizes the effects of the fungus. At their wedding dinner, Noemi confronts the Doyles and with the help of Francis and Catalina they shoot Howard Doyle. They escape thru the mines of the mansion, and encounter the corpse of Agnes Doyle (Howard's sacrificed wife). They discover that Agnes is the source of the fungi network and set her on fire which spreads throughout the mansion. Noemi, Catalina, and Francis are able to escape the burning mansion and find refuge in the town of El Triunfo. Francis is in critical condition but he is revived by Noemi in what appears to be a happy romantic ending. 

Book Review

I can see why this book was a best-seller, as it is easy to comprehend, and loaded with fore-shadowing of mysterious events. As I mentioned before I think the main appeal to the book is it's female lead character Noemi. She is attractive, intelligent, confident, competitive, courageous, ambitious, sassy, and classy. She is like the iconic 1950s Hollywood movie star smoking her cigarettes, wearing fancy dresses, and driving in convertibles. So it's no wonder she shines in such a dreary setting where all the Doyle family characters are as dry as ever. She is definitely not your cliché damsel in distress however and despite all the superatural haunting elements she faces it all with great tenacity. 

I do feel there was a lot of mundane activity throughout the middle of the book. Once she arrives in the mansion it's a routine of boring day-to-day interactions with her Catalina, Francis, or Virgil. Sure she begins to have some strange dreams, which no doubt fore-shadow the mystery of the mansion, but it's far too little. She makes a few trips to the town where she interacts with some of the locals but nothing too interesting. Quite frankly I don't think anything too dramatic occurs until the final few chapters of the book. This is why I feel it was ultimately a good book, but not a great book.

While I found it to be an entertaining and suspenseful read, I don't think it was quite the cultural immersion I was looking for. I think despite it's title, it's a story that could have unfolded anywhere really, maybe more so in the countryside of Britain. Once again though the book did have a hook effect, thanks to it's foreshadowing of mysterious events and that does make for a good read. It's good to see the Mexican author Silvia Moreno-Garcia get such praise for this work and surely she has more to offer. I can definitely see this book turned into a television series or movie. I just hope they pick a stunning Latin actress that can match Noemi's fire. It's truly a role that could launch someone's career.     

Cultural Study of Mexico

I would argue that Mexico probably has one of the most celebrated cultures in the world, maybe alongside the Irish, Italian, or Chinese. That is because they have such a distinctive cuisine that is enjoyed all around the world. Tacos, nachos, burritos, guacamole, enchiladas, tamales, quesadillas, fajitas, salsa, and so forth are all staples in modern day kitchens now. They have also contributed many iconic drinks such as tequila, margarita, Corona, Modelo, Dos Equis, Jarritos soda, and the refreshing sweet horchata. Alongside this comes their unique music, dance, and colorful fashion. All of which is often celebrated globally especially during their popular holidays of Cinco de Mayo or the Day of the Dead. 

As I've mentioned in the previous two blogs regarding Mexican history, I have always felt quite accustomed to the Mexican people. With Latin (Colombian) heritage myself I can relate to their Spanish language and Catholic ideals. I've also known many Mexican friends and associates throughout my life and have always found them to be a generous people. I've visited the country twice now. Once was a real authentic experience with a Mexican friend visiting his family's ranch in the countryside. The second time was more of a tourist experience, enjoying the beautiful beachside. Both were great experiences with great weather, great food and drinks, and very friendly people.

The popular culture of Mexico is rooted in it's very rich history and geography. This is a land that is quite tropical, near the equator, it is rich with good soil, water and vegetation, surrounded by oceans on both ends. For this reason the Mesoamerican natives became the first and most dominant ancient civilization in the Americas. And for this reason it later became the main headquarters for the Spanish conquest. Mexico City became a melting point for ancient native cultures mixed with new European cultures. The Mexico we know today is a fusion of their old Mayan/Aztec customs mixed with Spanish traits and especially the Catholic religion. In this post like usual I want to highlight the main categories of what makes up Mexico's culture. 

Mexican Cuisine

Since I already wrote about Mexico's history I'm going to start with what I believe makes Mexico so distinctive, and that's their food. It's among my personal favorite type of food, that offers fresh vegetables mixed with flavorful spicy meats. I think their many forms of salsa and dip are representative of their native crops of corn, avocados, tomatoes, tomatillos, cacao, lime, agave, and all types of peppers. Aside from it's staple contribution of corn and beans, Mexico is home to many iconic peppers such as the jalapeno, poblano, serrano, guajillo, and the dangerous habanero. For this reason it's generally assumed that most their food is going to be at least a little spicy.

Going out to eat at a Mexican restaurant for me is always an enjoyable social experience with family or friends. The environment is always so warm, inviting, and festive with it's colorful décor, Mexican music, and friendly staff. Most Mexican restaurants provide unlimited chips and salsa as an appetizer which is always nice to get an early start. Some of my favorite dishes have always been the chimichanga or the carne asade tacos (Real Mexican tacos shouldn't come with cheese I might add). My mom prefers the rice and fajitas while my dad normally orders a giant burrito. Then there's my favorite fast food spot in Taco Bell, where I especially love their tacos or chalupas. Other staples at home we often eat are usually the tacos, nachos, enchiladas, quesadillas, and one of my chef specialties is the pico de gallo.   

Aside from the Americanized popular dishes there are also many other popular dishes and desserts within Mexican society. This includes their authentic chilles rellenos, huevos rancheros, carnitas, tostadas, chilaquiles, various dishes of frijoles, rice, meat and peppers, and the pozole or menudo soups. While I've never been too crazy about Mexican pastries, they do have some other popular desserts such as the tres leches cake, churros, or flan. Then of course are theirtasty drinks I enjoy especially the Jarritos soda and horchata. Also some of my favorite beers are all Mexican, including Corona, Modelo, and Dos Equis. I'm personally not too crazy about the tequila or margaritas but it would be sacrilegious not to include them as a Mexican staple of cuisine. 

Mexican Architecture

The ancient buildings of Mesoamerica were very impressive, on par with that of Ancient Sumeria or Egypt. This included massive temples and pyramids of stone dedicated to their gods. Just as with the Egyptian pyramids there are great mystery as to how exactly they were built, without modern tools. However it would be far reaching to think anyone other then the Mayans themselves who were very knowledgable in mathematics and hard-working built the monuments in their homelands. Some of the most iconic of these landmarks that still stand to this day include the Tikal (300 BC), Pyramid of the Sun and Moon (200 BC), Uxmal (700 AD), and Chichen Itza (750 AD). 

The Spanish Colonial era brought on a new era of European architecture, specifically the construction of Catholic cathedrals. Mexico City was quickly transformed into the biggest city in the Americas. In the main town square, known as the Zocalo where Tenochtitlan once stood, was erected the iconic Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral. This impressive building of gothic style was constructed from 1573-1813 and has served as the symbol of Mexico City overseeing much history. Other iconic buildings of the colonial period include the National Palace (1522), the Puebla Cathedral (1737), the Zacatecas Cathedral (1752), and the Chapultepec Castle (completed in 1864) where the Austrian Emperor Maximillian lived during the brief tenure of the Mexican Empire. 

Following their independence in the 1800s Mexico began a new push for national identity and also modernization. Porfirio Diaz oversaw new building projects to enhance Mexico's modern identity which included the Palacio de Correos (postal office built from 1902-1907); the beautiful Palacio de Bellas Artes (fine arts museum built from 1904-1934); and the Monument of the Revolution (built from 1910-1938). After the Mexican Revolution came more expressive buildings of Mexican heritage demonstrated thru colorful murals. One of the most iconic examples is the colorful Central Library of the Ciudad Universitaria completed in 1954 commemorating Mexico's native history. Perhaps one of the most futuristic and abstract buildings of Mexico would be the Museo Soumaya completed in 2011. 

Mexican Art

The ancient art of Mesoamerica is demonstrated in all manners of crafts, ceramics, sculptures, and paintings depicting their gods. Some of the earliest and most famous Mesoamerican sculptures are the Olmec colossal heads, dated back to 1500 BC. Within the impressive Mayan architecture of temples and pyramids were very detailed sculpted figures and symbols. The Mayans also made many sculpted patterns on round rocks known as stelaes. Another fine example of ancient art is the iconic Aztec sun stone which measures 12 feet wide, 39 inches thick, and weighs 54,210 lbs. This ancient heirloom was once mounted on the side of the Metropolitan Cathedral.

During the colonial period there were many prominent Baroque influenced painters such as Juan Rodriguez Juarez, Juan Correa, and Cristobal de Villalpando (whose work was found in many cathedrals). Also during this time was the famous apparitions of Mary of Guadalupe in 1531 which inspired many artworks and has ever since become a spiritual symbol of Mexico. Miguel Cabrera became one of the first Mestizo painter (mixed of Spanish and native blood) and one of the most famous painters thru his religious artwork. Aside from portraits and secular art, Mexico also adopted various forms of murals, folding screens known as biombos, and lineage paintings known as castas. 

Mexico experienced a new wave of independence and romantic inspired art during the 1800s. But it was until the Revolution of the 1900s that Mexico truly found it's artistic identity. This was first brought on by a wave of Mexican muralism, artwork displayed on walls and buildings. The most famous muralists referred to as the Big Three were Diego Rivera, Jose Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siqueiros. They had created a new style that united Mexico's past with their future. From this tradition came the works of Frida Kahlo, the wife of Diego Rivera, who created her own surreal style of canvas painting. Most of her work was abstract portraits often depicting nature, animals, or some form of inner anatomy. Both Diego River and Frida Kahlo can be considered the greatest of Mexican artists who gave way to the Mexicayotl movement which established an artistic identity.       
 

Mexican Music and Dance

The first thing that comes to mind when I think of Mexican music is their traditional Mariachi bands. They are usually group of 5 to 6 members who play the guitar, violin, bass, and trumpets. They sing loudly and proudly dressed in their snazzy charro suits, cowboy boots, and sombrero hats. This folk style music dates back to the Spanish colonial period and is believed to have originated in the state of Jalisco. Other forms of traditional folk music are the banda, norteno, ramchera, the cumbia, and the corridos. The accordion is one of the more distinctive instruments in their music alongside the guitarron, marimba, and guiro.

Mexico has had many famous popular musicians dating back to the post-Revolution. Perhaps the earliest major superstar was Pedro Infante, a ranchera singer who was in over 60 films throughout the golden age of Mexican Cinema (1930s-1950s). He was like the Elvis of Mexico and is portrayed in the hit Disney film Coco. Jorge Negrete had a similar successful career performing in music and in films. Perhaps the most famous of Mexican musicians is Vicente Fernandez who has sold over 50 million albums throughout his 50 year career. The most successful Mexican musician of all time is Luis Miguel, who has sold approx 60 million albums. The most beloved was in my opinion Selena, who was a major hit during the 1990s before she was tragically murdered by gunshot. Other famous Mexican musicians include Juan Gabriel, Jose Jose, Los Tigres del Norte, Marco Antonio Solis (who produced one of my favorite songs from the movie Y Tu Mama Tambien, Si No Te Huiberas Ido).           

Alongside it's traditional music is also very unique forms of dance that incorporate this folk element. The Jarabe is quite recognizable where the female dancers spin their long colorful dresses known as china poblana. The men where their traditional ranch suits, known as charros, and the pair will often dance in fast and flirtacious steps towards one another. Aside from this dance Mexico also partakes in various other forms of popular Latin American dance such as salsa, mambo, cumbia, merengue, samba, and bachata.  

Mexican Holidays

Another major reason Mexico's culture is so popular (as I mentioned above) is for their holidays. Aside from the usual Christian ones of Christmas and Easter they have several unique ones. One of the most famous is Cinco de Mayo, which is on par with St. Patrick's Day as a day of debauchery. This holiday was established in 1862 to celebrate Mexican's victory at the Battle of Puebla against the invading French Empire. Although France would eventually occupy the nation for a brief period, they were later completely expelled by 1867. The holiday has now become more popular in the United States then in Mexico brought on by the Mexican-American "Chicano" movement of the 1960s.

Mexico's Independence Day is celebrated on September 16th, to commemorate Miguel Hidalgo's Cry of Dolores which called the people to arms against Spain in 1810. The War eventually ended in 1821, and this is also a holiday celebrated as a holiday on September 27th. Other national holidays include celebrating president Benito Juarez's birthday on March 21st (who guided Mexico thru the Reform War and the French Invasion during the 1860s.) Revolution Day is celebrated on November 20th to commemorate all those who fought and died during the Mexican Revolution.

One of the more unique customs of Mexican culture is their celebration of the Day of the Dead on November 1st and 2nd. This holiday is on par with the Catholic All Saints Day but also incorporates some Halloween festivities with gothic and morbid elements. The two day festivity is meant to honor not only the saints but also deceased family and friends. It is customary in Mexico to visit shrines, altars, and graves of their loved ones and honor them with flowers and colorful skulls known as calaveras. This symbol of the calavera is the theme of the festival demonstrated all throughout Mexico whether in parades or face paint. I feel like the festival has become even more popular in the last ten years thanks to the opening scene in the James Bond 2015 film Spectre and the Disney 2017 film of Coco. 

Mexican Sports

As far back as 3000 years ago, the Mesoamerican's partook in a unique ballgame sport known as ulama, where they would use their hips to shoot the ball into a ring. The sport is still played today in ballcourts to commemorate their native ancestry. Various forms of tennis and racquetball were adopted from this sport and played in the ancient sites of Chichen Itza. In the traditions of the Spanish Empire, Mexico adopted the practice of bullfighting during the colonial period and to this day it is still a popular sport. The Plaza Mexico hosts the largest bullring in the world seating up to 41,000. Charreria is also a sport that arose from the Colonial Age, demonstrating ranchers equestrian skills on horse.

The two most popular sports today in Mexico are football and boxing. Some of the greatest lightweight boxers have come from Mexico including Julio Cesar Chavez, Ruben Olivares, and Canelo Alvarez. They also have a passionate Soccer history with famous players such as Hugo Sanchez, Rafa Marquez, and Jorge Campos. Although they have yet to win the world cup, it seems every time they at least make it to the knock-out round. They made it to the quarterfinals twice in 1970 and 1986. Mexico has actually hosted the World Cup twice in 1970 and 1986 in their iconic Aztec Stadium. They have also hosted the Olympics in 1968 and usually their best event is in the diving.    

Movies/Books about Mexico

• 
  Insurgent Mexico (1914): This is a war account by American journalist John Jack Reed (the famed writer of the Ten Days that Shook the World and Russian Communist sympathezier). It gives perhaps one of the best inside accounts into the rebel fighters of Pancho Villa and the Mexican Revolution.
  
• Selena (1997): This biopic film starring Jennifer Lopez depicts the life of Selena Quintanilla Perez. She became a Mexican-American popstar icon with many big hits, managed by her family. Her career however was quite short-lived due to her tragic murder at the age of 23
• Desperado Trilogy (1993, 1995, 2003): This film series directed by Robert Rodriguez first debuted with El Mariachi, the story of an assassin musician who carried his weapons in his guitar case. The story became even more popular in the 2nd film, Desperado starring Antonio Banderas alongside the beautiful Salma Hayek. A 3rd film was release in 2003, Once Upon a Time in Mexico, with an all start cast including Banderas, Hayek, Johnny Depp, Mickey Rourke, William Dafoe, Eva Mendes, Danny Trejo, and Enrique Iglesias.
• 
  Machete Series (2001-2018): The character Isador "Machete" Cortez played by Danny Trejo was first introduced in the Spy Kids film series and later in his own series. I have yet to see the action movies but he is usually depicted as a mean mercenary.   
  
• Y Tu Mama Tambien (2001): One of my all time favorite films directed by Alfonso Cuaron, starring Gael Garcia Bernal, Diego Luna, and Maribel Verdu. It is a bit of a love triangle where two young college kids go on a road trip with a stunning Spanish woman. The movie is filled with comedy and drama in the backdrop of Mexico's modern day society. 
• Frida (2002): This was another film I very much enjoyed starring Salma Hayek in the title role depiction of the famed artist Frida Kahlo. Directed by Julie Taymor and nominated for 5 Oscars, the film gives an artistic portrayal of the young artist who fell in love with Diego Rivera but also established her own identity. The movie has a great soundtrack and an all start cast including Hayek, Alfred Molina, Geoggrey Rush, Antonio Banderas, Edward Norton, Ashley Judd, and Diego Luna. 
• Starring Pancho Villa as Himself (2003): This film starring Antonio Banderas as Pancho Villa depicts the true account of a Hollywood production in 1914 of the Mexican Revolution. Pancho Villa invited American producers to film his real account in hopes to gain political favor throughout the United States.
• 
  Sin Nombre (2009): Another film I have not seen but would like to, it depicts undocumented immigrants traveling thru Mexico to cross the border into America. It is a romance between a Honduran girl and a Mexican boy trying to free himself from gang life. The film is mostly located in Mexico's countryside, and was produced by Diego Luna and Gael Garcia Bernal (from Motorcycle Diaries).
  
• Coco (2017): This very popular animated Disney film depicts the Mexican tradition of Dia de Los Muertes. In the story the young musical boy named Miguel, accidentally crosses over to the realm of the dead, and must partner with his great grandfather Hector to return. The film has a great story, a great soundtrack, and a great portrayal of Mexico's Day of the Dead, demonstrating the facets of family and lost loved ones. 
• Mexican Gothic (2020): This best-selling novel by Silvia Moreno-Garcia is set in the 1950s in rural Mexico, and as the title suggests it is a horror story. I am currently reading the book and find it quite easy and interesting to follow along. I'll later have a full review on this. 

Historical Study of Mexico

I've decided to expand on my Mesoamerican phase into an overall Mexican appreciation phase. This is surprisingly my first ever full emersion into Mexican history and culture. Furthermore I intend for this phase to go beyond Mexico into a full on summer of Latin culture, leading up to our big trip to Colombia in October. It's funny though how these phases of mine, sometimes don't go to plan. For example I intended to kick off a Japanese phase following my Cold War studies, but instead got diverted by a space phase and now a Mexican phase. I'm sure I'll get to the Japanese phase later on. I just love cultural and historical phases that keep me learning and experiencing new things. 

So as I touched on in my previous post regarding the history of Mesoamerica this fascination is brought on by our trip to Cancun a few weeks ago. I described how that was only my 2nd trip to Mexico, but I am already quite familiar with their culture. I have had many Mexican friends and associates throughout my life and find them to be a friendly people. I especially enjoy their music, food, and drinks (as I think most Americans do). But surprisingly I don't know much on their history and have yet to make a deep dive into the topic. I believe it is broken up ultimately into three phases; the Mesoamericans, the Spanish colonial period, and their independence. 

As I usually do I'll write a separate post following this one that focuses primarily on Mexican culture. This post will lay the foundation of Mexico's historical story. I'm going to continue where I left off in my last post on Mesoamerica and pickup the timeline at the Spanish conquest of the 1500s. This was a period of cultural and religious assimilation where Catholicism became the new standard. It was not until the 1800s that the Mexican people established their own identity under the leadership of famous revolutionaries Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. And despite that independence they continued to be at odds against their northern neighbor the United States up until present day. So I want to better understand the key periods, conflicts, and leaders of Mexican history. 

New Spain

Following the fall of the Aztec Empire in 1521 the Spanish conqueror Hernan Cortes renamed the colony as New Spain and the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan became Mexico City. This new kingdom stretched from the North American territory of Florida, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California; most of Central America, the Caribbean islands, and parts of South America. The capital city of the Spanish conquest became Mexico City, where all trade and expeditions into Latin America came from. The native indigenous were quickly subdued into slave labor and Spanish immigrants arrived to cash in on the labor force as well as the rich silver and resources to mine.

However the Spanish conquerors continued to face opposition from the native Mesoamericans for the next 100 years, notably in Mayan regions and from the Chichimeca Confederation. Soon after however a new cultural society was established that mixed European settlers with native Mesoamericans. Government and social classes were established that placed Spanish settlers at the highest positions, criollos (Spanish born in Mexico) at the 2nd highest, Mestizos (mixed of Spanish and Native heritage) at the 3rd highest, and of course the natives at the bottom class. While the location was booming with economic resource, it's entire purpose was to support the Spanish Empire, therefore it's true potential was limited.

Despite this terrible conquest, Mexico became the center of a new Spanish renaissance in the Americas, that brought on a fusion of European and native customs. The first school, university, and printing press of the Americas were established to help encourage education. Juana Ines de la Cruz became the first famous writer born in colonial Mexico. Other significant works of architecture, cathedrals, monuments, and colonial forts were constructed in cities such as Mexico City, Peubla, Queretaro, and Zacatecas. The iconic Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City began construction in 1573 at the main town square known as Zocalo, which was the former central plaza of Tenochtitlan. The Catholic church was built in phases and finally completed in 1813 in Gothic fashion. 

Also from this cultural fusion came new cultural customs such as the production of tequila, Mexican cuisine, rancheros, and the music and dance of the mariachi and jarabe. By the early 1800s the natives and Spanish born Criollos grew in united strength to oppose the Spanish Imperial power. This was a similar pattern that took place in the United States in the late 1700s, as well as throughout most of Latin America during the 1800s. The American inhabitants had simply outgrown their foreign European conquerors. 

Independence Movement

The revolutionary ideals within Mexico were no doubt inspired by the events in America and France at the end of the 1700s. Miguel Hidalgo was a professor and Catholic priest inspired by ideals from the Enlightenment he became the voice and leader of this revolution. The situation boiled over during the Peninsula War (1807-1814), where Spain was defeated by Napoleon's French Army. A new coalition within New Spain emerged uniting influential conservatives with Mexican insurgents. The revolution got started in September of 1810 when Miguel Hidalgo met with military leaders Ignacio Allende and Juan Aldama to give a public call to arms against the Spanish, now known as the Cry of Dolores. Shortly after the Mexican insurgents stormed the royalist outpost in Guanajuato to begin the war.

The Spanish Royal army responded a few months later to this insurgency at the Battle of Calderon Bridge in January of 1811. Despite their greater numbers they were no match for the advanced Spanish military tactics and were routed in the battle. The insurgent's leader Miguel Hidalgo, Ignacio Allende, and Juan Aldama were later captured and executed. The insurgency died down for a little after this but then reorganized under the leadership of the Catholic priest Jose Maria Morelos. The insurgents achieved notable victories in the southern port of Acapulco, Veracruz, and Oaxaca. Morelos was chosen as the supreme commander, that helped establish the official Mexican declaration of independence and a congress in November of 1813. Morelos was later defeated in a series of battles at Valladolid and executed in 1815.

From there the insurgent leadership passed to Vicente Guerrero who had been conducting successful guerilla campaigns in southern Mexico. He was aided by the military leadership of Guadalupe Victoria who had also achieved victories in the region of Puebla. However from 1816-1820 the main cities remained unscathed under royalist control, while the outer regions experienced continuous insurgency. That was until 1820 when the Mexican insurgents got a lucky break thanks to the Trienio Liberal revolution that occurred in Spain. In response to this change in Spanish government the royalist military commander, Agustin de Ilturbide switched sides to join the insurgents. This was a crushing blow to the royalist army and opened the doors for Mexican independence.

Augstin de Ilturbide negotiated with the insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero to create the Plan of Iguala in Feburary of 1821. Also known as the Plan of Three Guarantees it established the principles of Catholicism, independence from Spain, and equality for all races within Mexico. Thus came an end to the Mexican War of Independence. A new Mexican government and flag were established, known as the Mexican Empire. Under the leadership of Emperor Agustin I the monarchy was short lived and later dissolved and replaced by a republic in 1824. 

Insurgent leader Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of Mexico's republic in 1824. He was later succeeded by the insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero in 1829. During Guerrero's brief presidency he abolished slavery however was later overthrown just a few months into his presidency. He returned to the south to wage a civil war against President Anastasio Bustamente and his ally Nicolas Bravo. Guerrero achieved some success until he was captured in 1831 by an Italian merchant and handed over to the Mexican courts for execution. The Mexican republic then underwent various political shifts and was eventually replaced by a more conservative regime in 1835 that became known as the Centralist Republic of Mexico.

Conflicts with the United States

Since it's independence in 1821 the Mexican government was constantly ongoing civil internal conflict among it's military-political leaders known as caudillos. The president of the Centralist Republic therefore never had outright power, and it was rather divided among multiple prominent politicians. Furthermore their territory in the north began to whither beginning with Texas in 1832. This territory was sought after by American immigrants seeking to establish outposts for western trade, resource mining, and Native expulsion. They were mostly led by Stephen F. Austin who had received a settlement grant from the Mexican government. However it did not take long for Austin to bring on his American customs in opposition to Mexican law, most notably that of slavery.

After years of hostility within the region the Texas Revolution broke out in October of 1835 between Texan settlers and Mexican army soldiers at the Battle of Gonzales. A few months later Austin led his Texan milita to victory at the Siege of Bexar (present day San Antonio). However the Mexican Army responded with a full on siege at the Battle of the Alamo to reclaim the territory in March of 1836. As a result of this defeat some 440 Texan prisoners were later massacred at Goliad. The Texans were not finished however and under the leadership of Sam Houston with a war-cry to "Remember the Alamo" they achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of San Jacinto. The Republic of Texas was thus established in 1836, independent from Mexico, with stronger ties to the United States.

However the Mexican government refused to recognize the Republic of Texas, and conflicts continued well into the 1840s. That was until 1845 when the United States annexed Texas to become it's 28th state. Mexico was now not in conflict with Texas but with the entire United States over this region, which brought on the Mexican-American War in 1845. The conflict began with the Thornton Affair in April 1846, fought over contested territory along the Rio Grande, where the Mexican Army assaulted an American contingency. In response to this the United States declared war on Mexico a few days later in May of 1846.        

Under the leadership of Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Mexico began hostilities with a full on siege of Fort Texas but later withdrew after several days. US army general Stephen Kearny then launched a military campaign into New Mexico territory to capture the regions of New Mexico and California. Kearney was able to capture Santa Fe in August without a shot fired and established a new American government to continue the war. From here the American army pushed further west into California also without much resistance and captured southern California by January of 1847. 

The Mexican theater put up much more of a fight against American general Zachary Taylor. The Battle of Monterrey was hard fought by both sides, but victory achieved by the Americans. However the subsequent Battle of Buena Vista in February of 1847 was more of a Mexican victory. That success was short-lived however due to superior American weapons and tactics. Furthermore indigenous uprisings supported by the Americans, sprang up all across Mexican territory most notably the Navajos and the Mayans. The American Siege of Veracruz in March of 1847 opened the doors for their full assault on Mexico City. 

American General Winfield Scott's campaign to Mexico City was accompanied by notable future military men Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, George Meade, Ulysses Grant, James Longstreet, and Stonewall Jackson. They achieved another victory at the Battle of Cerro Gordo, easily marched thru Puebla, and then led a series of engagements at the Battle of Mexico in September of 1847. While the American army occupied Mexico City, there was debate among American politicians whether they should annex all of Mexican territory on par with their Manifest Destiny. However this notion was shot down by a proponent of racist politicians who did not want to adopt indigenous people into their nation.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February of 1848 and became a massive territory loss for Mexico. A new border was established along the Rio Grande, which gave the United States total control of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado (which were all eventually turned into states of America). Mexico fell into shambles after this defeat, with continued political disputes and a weakening financial economy. By 1854 Mexico's influential leader Santa Anna was forced into exile, which ultimately ushered in a new era of Mexican reform and government.

The Mexican Reformation

In 1854 a new series of liberal reforms known as the Plan of Ayutla were enacted which ousted the conservative leader Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. In 1857 President Ignacio Comonfort instituted a new liberal constitution which essentially gave the people more individual rights and freedom from the Catholic Church. This however was heavily opposed by the conservative factions and eventually led to a full scale civil war known as the Reform War from 1857-1861. The Most Excellent Benito Juarez succeeded Comonfort to successfully repel the Conservative insurgency led by conservative General Felix Zuloaga. 

While the Reform War ended with a liberal victory in 1861 it was rather short lived due to French Intervention by Napoleon III. This was mostly due to foreign debts that Mexico had owed to France, but also Napoleon's desire to re-establish a French Imperial presence in the Americas. The defeated Mexican conservative faction supported this French invasion that overthrew Mexico City by 1863. An Austrian archduke named Maximilian became the emperor of the newly established Mexican Empire (which was ultimately a French puppet state). Benito Juarez fled to the north, where he was able to continue the Republic fight and eventually gathered support from the United States after they finished their own Civil War in 1865. 

With support from the United States Juarez' republic government was able to repel the French occupation who were also facing conflicts back in Europe against Prussia. By 1867 the French were forced to leave Mexico, and Benito Juarez was reinstated as president of the Republic of Mexico. The Mexican Empire was disbanded and emperor Maximilian was executed. Benito Juarez remained president until his death in 1872 and is regarded as one of the greatest of Mexican presidents for his resilience in the face of civil conflict and foreign intervention. 

The Porfiriato

In 1876 the liberal general Porfirio Diaz led a coup known as the Plan of Tuxtepec which established a new dictatorship over Mexico known as the Porfiriato. Despite his unjust rise to power, Porfirio established good relations with the prominent leaders of Mexico as well as the foreign powers of the United States and Great Britain. A new age of progress and industrialization boomed throughout Mexico not felt since their defeat by the Americans in 1848. Porfiriato ruled with an iron fist, creating a secret police throughout the rural regions and fixing each election so that he won.  

Porfirio's dictatorship was one of tight control but also major progress for the nation of Mexico. This was due to his philosophy of science and technology over the principles of religion and the Catholic church. During this industrial boom, the Mexican economy also began to grow, and just as with the United States or Europe this free market established a great gap between the wealthy titans and the majority of laborers. It was only a matter of time before the religious peasants, laborers, and socialist ideals organized to disrupt his 35 year reign of capitalism. 

Mexican Revolution

Despite much unhappiness from the laborers during the Porfiriato there really wasn't much organized opposition until the election of 1910. This was brought about when Porfirio stole another election, and his opposition Francisco Madero called for an armed uprising. As a prominent landowner and businessman, Madero was able to rally many laborers to his cause. Within a year there were numerous uprisings against the Federal army. By May of 1911, Diaz abdicated his leadership and went into exile so that Madero could assume the office of presidency. This was the first phase of the revolution and was fairly a non-violent one, bringing and end to the 35 year Porfiriato dictatorship.

The presidency of Madero was shrouded with conflict however as the peasants felt abandoned and soon began to demand land led by the famous Emiliano Zapata. Meanwhile President Madero had a second group of enemies, loyalists to Porfirio Diaz, who waged a coup in February of 1913. The coup was led by General Victoriano Huerta with the support of the United States and was a bloody conflict referred to as the Ten Tragic Days. President Madero was eventually captured and murdered and the Porifiristas rebels took back the government. General Huerta became president, who was at first on Madero's side then switched to join the rebels. However this presidency was also short-lived due to increasing victories from Zapata's rebels.

By 1913 rebel leader Francisco Pancho Villa joined forced with Zapata to wage civil war against President Huerta. They were also supported by the prominent governor Venustiano Carranza who established a Constitutionalist Army. Despite passing military conscription laws, Huerta quickly suffered defeats by Zapata's forces, as well as a crushing occupation in Veracruz by the United States. By July of 1914 Huerta was forced to resign his presidency and the federal army was disbanded. This led to a brief interbellum period in which Carranza could not come to terms with Pancho Villa and Zapata, and so the war took on another phase. Villa and Zapata formed the Conventiontist army to oppose the Constitutionalist army. 

The Constitutionalists achieved a key victory at the Battle of Celaya in 1915 which further empowered Carranza's grip on the government. However Villa and Zapata continued their uprisings against Carranza's power as well as the region of New Mexico. Carranza was able to enlist support from the US, after sharing the Zimmermann Telegram with them (Germany's plot to lure Mexico into the WWI conflict). Shortly after this, the Constitution of 1917 was adopted which made Carranza president and appealed the Conventionists' demands for land and social rights. Despite this Zapata and Villa continued to oppose the Constitutionalist government. Zapata was eventually assassinated in April of 1919 and Pancho Villa assassinated in 1923. Despite this however both Zapata and Villa became glorified as heroes of the people for establishing rights for the lower classes in the Constitution of 1917. 

In the election of 1920 Carranza attempted to select a puppet leader, however he was opposed by prominent generals. Carranza was eventually ran out of town and murdered, and the government passed on to various generals such as Adolfo de la Huerta, Alvaro Obregon, and Plutarco Elias Calles. With the deaths of Carranza, Emiliano Zapata, and Pancho Villa the revolution withered away. The newly formed constitutional government (established in the Constitution of 1917) has held strong to this day. It puts a great emphasis on social rights and a centralized government free from the Catholic Church. Ever since the revolution Mexico has continued to improve it's economy as well as it's relation with it's mighty northern neighbor, the United States. 

Historical Study of Mesoamerica

Last week I went to an all inclusive resort at Cancun, Mexico with my family. This was my 2nd time in Mexico the first being in 2000 as a freshman, when I joined my best friend Sergio and his family for a week. That experience was quite special since I got an authentic view into Mexican culture, within the city of Sabinas Hidalgo in the northern state of Nuevo Leon. This 2nd experience was the complete opposite visiting a tourist hot-spot on the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, best known as the spring break destination. For 4 days we enjoyed the beautiful beaches with a very tasty all you can eat/drink menu. The water was very refreshing and the seafloor was much softer and sandier then it was in Punta Cana. All-in-all I enjoyed this resort destination a little more than Punta Cana. 

My only regret on this trip was that we were unable to visit the historical site of Chichen Itza. I knew going into the trip that it would be a major effort that would cut into our rather short relaxation time and had my doubts that it would happen. A trip to the iconic pyramid would have cost us 6 hours in a car-ride which frankly I nor my family wanted to exchange for a relaxing day on the beach. So I decided there will be a 2nd visit to Cancun and I will make it a priority to visit Chichen Itza, the ancient city of the Mayans. Which thus brings on this segue to a new fascination into Mesoamerican history brought on by this recent trip. 

The past few years now I've tried to branch out from my westernized/European influence by studying lesser known cultures. This includes deep dives into Chinese, Indian, Middle Eastern, and Colombian history. I love all sorts of world culture and history and can especially relate to Latin America from my Colombian heritage. I am thus already quite familiar with the region of Central America. I visited Costa Rica and Nicaragua in 2009 and have had many Mexican friends and associates throughout my life. As the southern neighbors to America, Mexican customs are quite infused in our daily lives. Every American enjoys Mexican food and drinks, and can likely understand a little bit of Spanish much more then French or German. 

It's quite interesting how our Native Americans never really compared to the scale, size, and advancements of the Mayans or Aztecs. It was within Mesoamerica as far back as 7000 BC, that came the dawning of a new cradle of life and civilization in the western hemisphere. The civilizations of Mesoamerica run simultaneous to those of Ancient Egypt, Sumer, India, and China. They developed their own system of trade, economy, government, writing, science, astronomy, medicine, architecture, and so much more. This was long before any influence from the west which ultimately brought about their demise during the Spanish Conquest of the 1500s. So here I'd like to dive deeper into the main Mesoamerican tribes and their linear evolution leading up to that tragic conquest. 

The Olmecs

The earliest settlements of Mesoamerica date as far back as 8000 BC, in a period known as the Archaic Period. During this time new techniques of agriculture were developed including their groundbreaking production of maize. The natives established settlements along the western coast of Mexico and Guatemala and spread more inland throughout the years. One of the first major civilizations of Mesoamerica were the Olmecs who settled on the eastern border in the region known as Veracruz from 1200 BC to 400 BC. Numerous archeological sites discovered in this region give historians an idea of how advanced this civilization was.

It is believed their capital city was San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan (not to be confused with the Tenochtitlan of Mexico City). They established a booming civilization much thanks to rich soil supported by rivers coming from the Gulf of Mexico. They were best known for their artifacts and rock sculpting, the most famous being their colossal heads weighing nearly 50 tons. Following the decline of San Lorenzo, La Venta became their new center. It was hear that they built the Great Pyramid, one of the largest structures of it's time. By around 400 BC the civilization began to decline most likely due to environmental changes (such as volcano activity). 

The Mayans

The first settlements of the iconic Mayan civilization began as far back as 2000 BC in the Yucatan Peninsula. The agriculture was rich in these areas with mass production of maize, beans, squash, and chilli peppers. By around 750 BC some of the first Mayan cities were developed which demonstrated their impressive architecture and also their hieroglyphic writings. The Mayans built many monuments, temples, and pyramids dedicated to their gods. By around 250 AD they reached their classical period and had developed a system of city-states and a trade network. They established a mathematical calendar system which they used for architecture, agriculture, and astronomy. 

Some of the biggest Mayan cities were in Tikal, Guatemala and Calakmul, Mexico where impressive pyramid temples still stand to this day. The Tikal Temple was built in 732 AD and stood at an impressive 154 feet. Perhaps it's most iconic region was to the north in Chichen Itza where they built their iconic Castillo (from 1050-1300 AD). This structure stood at a towering 181 feet, not only as the tallest building in Mayan civilization but also the most elaborate. Another significant kingdom of the Mayans were the mighty K'iche people located in mainland Santa Cruz, Guatemala.  

Just like all civilizations they had a system of classes and were ruled by a divine king who served as a mediator between the people and the gods. They also classes of nobles, priests, war-chiefs, warriors, commoners, and slaves. The Mayans were not a conquering people however did use war tactics to control key trading routes and capture slaves. Trade markets flourished in some of the larger cities, where crops, artifacts, resources, and even slaves could be traded. Just like the Olmecs, the Mayans also put forth a lot of effort into their art, artifacts, and buildings.      

The Mayans developed a very sophisticated writing system, which demonstrated their practice of mathematics and a very advanced calendar system. They measured the lunar and solar cycles with incredible accuracy which also demonstrated their great knowledge of astronomy. They believed in powerful deities who controlled the weather, crops, the sun, and the stars. These religious beliefs often brought on their more savage practice of human sacrifice as an offering to their gods. This usually included captive warrior men whose hearts were extracted, they were beheaded, and bodies thrown from pyramids. By around 900 AD the Mayan civilization mysteriously began to collapse or rather disperse from their main-lands. Perhaps due to foreign invasions, droughts, epidemics, or failing trade routes. 

The Toltecs

Following the fall of the Mayans, several other tribes rose to prominence throughout Mesoamerica such as the Mayapans in the Yucatan Peninsula, the Toninas (Chiapas highlands), the Kaminaljuyu in the Guatemalan highlands, the Mam in western Guatemala, the Poqomam in the north east of Guatemala, and the Poqomam in northeast Guatemala. One of the most significant however was the Toltecs based in the capital city of Tula (on the outskirts of modern day Mexico City). The Toltecs also helped resurrect the ruined city of Teotihuacan with it's impressive Pyramids of the Moon and Sun. This city once stood as the central hub of the Teotuhuacanoas as one of the biggest cities in the history of Mesoamerica (around 200 AD).  

The Toltecs rose to prominence from 950 to 1150 and just as their predecessors did they were rich in agriculture and architecture. They established new mythological deities and customs that were eventually adopted and transfused into the Aztec and Mesoamerican culture. They built new monuments and renovated old ones all which praised their deities. The Toltecs had various disputes with other tribes in the Yucatan peninsula and eventually lost control of Cholula and Tula by around 1200 AD. 

The Aztecs

One of the best known Mesoamerican civilizations were the Aztecs who thrived from 1300 to the conquest of the Spanish in 1521. They were based in central Mexico, mostly at their capital city of Tenochtitlan (which is now modern day Mexico City). Their empire consisted of three major city states within the Valley of Mexico; Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. While they established their own empire, they took on many of the customs and religions of other Mesoamerican tribes such as the Toltecs. Unlike previous tribes however, they were a conquering people who defeated many neighboring tribes within the Basin of Mexico. By 1427 the Aztec Triple Alliance had become the greatest military power during the Mesoamerican age. 

The Empire reached it's peak in 1519 where it's territory spanned from coast to coast into parts of Guatemala. This powerful civilization was united by military conquest, trade, and marriage alliances. Smaller city-states were forced to pay taxes to the high king known as the Tlatoani. One of the greatest of these rulers was Montezuma I (1440-1469) who expanded territory, established legal codes, and initiated many new buildings and temples to the gods. The Aztecs were rich in agriculture, crafts, trade, art, writing, and religion. Their capital city of Tenochtitlan became a booming urban center of approx 700,000 residents with impressive buildings such as the Temple Mayor. However the Aztecs also had a dark savage side just as their predecessors and practiced sacrifice and cannibalism as offerings to the gods. 

By 1519 however the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes set sail from Cuba to arrive on the coast of Vercruz. With an intent to colonize territory, plunder gold, and convert the indigenous tribes to Christianity there was no question Cortes was an invader. Little by little he colonized regions, some peacefully and some violently until he came to the heart of the Aztec Empire. In Cholula he massacred 6000 Aztec warriors before continuing his march on Tenochtitlan. The ruler of the Aztecs, Montezuma II decided to welcome Cortes into the city, hoping for a peaceful resolution. However this diplomacy was short-lived due to religious differences and ongoing uprisings against the Spanish invaders. 

By 1520 however the tensions between the Aztecs and Spanish finally boiled over and the Spanish massacred and lay siege to the city of Tenochtitlan. Montezuma was killed mysteriously during the various engagements that followed (either by Spaniards, by his own people. or by suicide). His predecessor, Cuauhtémoc put up a fierce resistance however ultimately they were no match to the superior Spanish weapons. By 1521 the city had fallen and Cortes replaced all idols with Christian monuments. Soon after the city was renamed Mexico City, and the Aztecs (and all other Mesoamerican tribes) were assimilated into Spanish society.      

Mythological Deities

• 
  Huitzilopochtli: Father of the Aztecs. His name means Hummingbird of the left. He is the patron god who guided the Aztecs to build the city of Technotitlin and the great Templo Mayor pyramid. 
  
• Itzamna: The most important god of the Mayans, he was the creator, and the ruler of day and night. He taught the Mayans how to grow Maize and to use calendars and medicine. 
• Tlaloc: God of the rain and storms worshiped by the Olmecs, Mayans, and the Aztecs. 
• Tonatiuh: Aztec god of the sun. However the Aztecs believed he required blood worship and hence they performed sacrifices in his name. 
• Chaac: Was the Mayan rain god, popular throughout the Yucatan region. 
• Tezcatlipoca: God of night, death, the cold, and wicked forces. His name meant Smoking Mirror.
• Chalchiuhtlicue: Goddess of running water, the rivers, and the seas. She was also the patron of childbirth.
• Centeotl: God of Maize and the crops. This god was worshiped by the Olmes, Mayans, and the Aztecs. 
• Quetzalcoatl (or also known as Kukulkan): The feathered serpent who served as the god of knowledge and wisdom for the Aztecs and the Mayans. 
• Xipe Totec: God of fertility and sacrifice. 

Most Iconic Landmarks

• 
  San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan Colossal heads: Built by the Olmec people from 1400-900 BC. This is one of the oldest sites of Mesoamerican archeology.
• Great Pyramid of La Venta: Built by the Olmecs in 1800BC, it underwent various formations up until 200 AD. 
• High Temple of Lamanai: was built in 1600 BC by the Mayans located in Belize.
• Xunantunich: Mayan pyramid built known as the Maiden of the Rock was believed to have been built in 1000 BC in Belize. 
• El Mirador: Was a Mayan viewpoint and settlement built around 600 BC, located in El Peten, Guatemala.
• Uaxactun: Sacred place of the Mayans, the Temple of the Masks was built in the Peten Basin of Guatemala in 400 BC. 
• Tikal: One of the more iconic structures and 2nd tallest was built by the Mayans in the Peten Basin of Guatemala in 300 BC.
• Monte Alban: Was an important platform and center for the Zapotec people established in 500 BC in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico.
• Pyramid of the Sun: Was built by the Teotihuacanos as far back as 200 BC in the capital city of Teotihuacan. The building was later renovated by the Toltecs and Aztecs and stood an impressive 720 feet.  
  
• Pyramid of the Moon: Was built by the Teotihuacanos in 150 BC adjacent to the Pyramid of the Sun in what is referred to as the Avenue of the Dead.
• Guachimontones: Built by the Teuchitlan culture in the state of Jalisco 300 BC. The structure is a grass pyramid of layers referred to as La Iguana.
• Palenque: Is a Mayan city-state of various temples, pyramids, and statues built from 226 BC to 799 AD located in the region of Chiapas, Mexico.
  
• Xochicalco: Another Mayan pyramid structure found in the state of Morelos, it was first occupied in 200 BC. 
• 
  Uxmal: Home to the iconic Pyramid of the Magician, that was built between 700-1000 AD. The Mayan structure stands at 131 feet overlooking the Yucatan Peninsula. 
• Chichen Itza: One of the most famous Mayan structures, El Castillo temple was built in 600-750 standing at an impressive 181 feet. The temple was dedicated to their god of Wisdom, Kukulkan.
• Mayapan: Another site of the Mayans from 1200-1440, with a large temple pyramid also dedicated to Kukulkan.
• El Tajin: Named after the Totnac Rain God, this site in Veracruz flourished from 600 to 1200 AD. It consists of a series of temples, pyramids, palaces, and ballcourts. 
• Templo Mayor: Was the central temple of the Aztecs erected in Tenochititlan in 1375 and was dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochti and Tlaloc. It once stood at 262 feet towering over the capital city of the Aztecs. Today however it stands in ruins, replaced by the iconic Zocalo main plaza square of Mexico City.     

Contributions

The Mesoamerican cultures were a cradle of life in the western hemisphere and created many societal contributions that were eventually adopted by the Spanish and European peoples. Here is a list of some of their impressive contributions to the historical development of mankind;

• 
  Writing System: The Olmecs were the first to create a writing system in the Americas through a series of symbols. 
• Calendar: The Mesoamericans created groundbreaking calender system, based on lunar and solar cycles in accordance with their agriculture cycles. They also perfected the study and prediction of astronomy.
  
• Agriculture: The Mesoamericans were blessed with great soil and temperatures to produce many varieties of new crops such as maize, beans, and peppers that were later shared with the world.
• Architecture: Inspired by their polytheistic religion, they built many impressive monuments and temples on par with that of ancient Egypt. 
• Mathematics: They used a system of bars and dots to represent numbers and helped establish the concept of zero as a numeric value.
• Ulama ballgame: The Mesoamericans created a ceremonial sport played in ballcourts where players would use their hips to hit a ball into a ring.     
• Arts and Crafts: The arts and crafts of the ancient Mesoamericans are still admired and incorporated today in everyday Mexican culture.