Major Theological Concepts

As I was studying the Catholic Catechism I realized there are so many theological concepts, branches, and movements I knew nothing about. I then took it upon myself to outline the core doctrine of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches (unfortunately I did not make a deep dive on the Protestant Churches. Yet!) I also mapped out a historical evolution of the key ecumenical councils as well as the most influential Christian theologians (including the heretics and schismatics). I think over the past five months now, I've gotten a fairly decent understanding on the various aspects of Christian theology. I find this stuff to be so very interesting and stimulating, and I still continue to learn daily. 

I think I am finally ready to move onward from my strictly Christian theology studies. One area that has pulled me lately is the broader topic of philosophy, which would make for the perfect segue after all this theological study. The two go hand-in-hand, and I already have dabbled into so much philosophical topics. I even wrote a post on the philosophy of all religions (not just Christianity). In this post I want to do something similar focusing on the main concepts, beliefs, movements, branches of Christian theology. So this is purely an academic study using my own words to understand the concept. In the final section I included the ten major schools of Christian theology, which I touched upon in my previous post. 


Christian Theological Branches

Christology- This is the study of the personhood, the nature, and the will of Jesus Christ. It especially seeks to define his divinity and humanity, and their relationship with one another. This was a central topic of debate during the early years of the Church, most notably at the Council of Ephesus and Chalcedon. While most of the early Christians accepted that he was divine and human, the main question in Christology is what the relationship. Some argued he was two persons in one form (Nestorianism), or one person with one nature in which the divine is supreme (monophysitism), or one person in one united nature (miaphysitism), or the accepted orthodox view that Christ is one person in two distinct natures (Dyophysitism/Chalcedonian).

Mariology- The study of the Virgin Mary as it pertains to her relationship with God and Christ. This seeks to address the theological questions of Mary's role as the mother of God (Theotokos), her perpetual virginity, her immaculate conception, and her assumption into heaven. The Christian Church considers Mary as the holiest of human beings, and the utmost embodiment of the church. This is ultimately because she was chosen by God, to give birth to his incarnate Son. This study also pertains to the many titles and devotions to Mary, as well as interpreting her narratives in the bible.

Angelology- The theological study of angels, their nature, hierarchy, roles, relationship to God, and relationship to humanity. While only three are properly mentioned in the bible (Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael) it is generally understood that there is a multitude of angels. These are considered spiritual and celestial messengers of God. This study addresses certain topics like the hierarchal tiers of angels such as the Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones, archangels, and so forth. It also pertains to the fallen angels, such as Lucifer, however this ties more into the study of Demonology.

Demonology- This is the study of demons that are mostly considered fallen angels. The primary fallen angel is Lucifer also known as Satan, who was famously cast out from heaven for leading a rebellion against God. It is also accepted by the church that many angels followed Satan to become fellow demons and evil spiritual powers. They are considered the total opposite of angels, as spiritual beings of temptation and sin. While angels reside in heaven, demons reside in hell seeking to oppose God and humanity.

Eschatology- This is the Christian study of the end times and all things pertaining to the afterlife. It covers the intriguing topics of death, heaven, purgatory, hell, the second coming of Christ, and Judgement Day. The church is fairly vague on much of this theology using the Book of Revelation as it's primary source. Even though it is purely imaginative, I find Dante's Divine Comedy has the best visualization of these afterlife spiritual realms.

Pneumatology- This is the theological study of the Holy Spirit. It pertains the personhood of the Holy Spirit, the mystical nature, and the relationship to God and Jesus. The Holy Spirit is referred to as one the three persons of God which according to the filioque proceeds from the father and the son. What I find most interesting about the Holy Spirit, is the scriptural references which are mentioned in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. He is referred to as the "Paraclete" the helper of Jesus Christ, who most famously descended upon the apostles during the Pentecost, which is seen as their blessing from God. The Holy Spirit is no doubt one of the most mysterious persons of the Holy Trinity often represented as a dove or a flame.

Christian Anthropology- The theological study of human beings as it pertains to Christianity. This covers the many questions of why God created humans, their physical form, their nature, their will, and their overall purpose. For starters it is generally accepted that humanity was created out of love in the image of God. This also addresses the gender question, where God believed man should not be alone but have an opposite sex to experience relationships, be fruitful, and multiply. The human body is no doubt limited to the laws of nature, but this opens up an even greater mysterious Christian concept, the existence of a soul within every human being. Anthropology especially covers our consciousness as a form of free will, where people freely make choices that affect their lives. This Christian concept essentially rejects any form of predetermined fate, or an obligation to love God, only a free choice to seek him for salvation. While this is a very broad topic it can also intersect with other human studies such as why humans exist (Existentialism), the Psychology of the Mind and Soul, the problems with humanity (Harmatiology), and how humans can be saved (Soteriology).

 Hamartiology- This is the theological study of sin, that focuses on what exactly is sin, the types of sin, and why do humans sin. For starters the core of all Christian teachings begin with the Book of Genesis and the classic story of Adam and Eve. This event became the first disobedience of God, which ultimately became humanity's fall and the origins of sin. Many theologians accept that humanity inherited this Original Sin and are thus all sinners in the eyes of God. Even though the sacrifice of Christ helped redeem us in God's eyes, we are still nonetheless programmed at birth with an inner desire to sin. It is also a product of our free will, where God lets us freely choose between right and wrong. Every human is guilty of one of the seven deadly sins; pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, wrath, and sloth. The study of Hamartiology categorizes the many forms of sin; sins of commission and omission as well as the mortal sins (serious intent) and venial sins (less serious matter). It also asks the important question of how we can be saved if we are all sinners. That is ultimately addressed in the study of soteriology.

Soteriology- This is the theological study that focuses on salvation, which is necessary after the problem of hamartiology. Salvation is ultimately a form of hope in the presence of sin, death, evilness, and divine judgement. Christians teach that although all humans are sinners, God is a loving and merciful God, that will forgive all. Thus it is held that Christians can achieve salvation thru repentance, faith, grace, prayer, and charity. This is the primary goal of the Christian Church to save all sinners, by showing them the path to achieve eternal salvation.

 Ecclesiology- This is the Christian study of the church, which serves as the primary house of God. The question here is what exactly the church is and what is its role according to scripture. Its main function is to provide a building for congregation and the practice of the Christian faith. This normally includes various forms of prayer, worship, the mass service, and also the holy sacraments such as Eucharist, Baptism, and Marriage. The church also plays an important function as a community, bringing people together in their everyday lives. The church is also seen as the central authority on all Christian matters that follows a strict hierarchal structure that comes from the Vatican (which is seen as the official apostolic succession).

Hagiology- This is the theological branch that studies all things to do with saints and holiness. It is considered the highest of honors recognized posthumously by the Christian church. There are approximately 10,000 saints canonized by the Catholic Church which includes figures from the Old Testament, New Testament, and the post-apostolic age which includes our current present time. The general criteria for being declared a saint is that they lived a very holy life (often with miracles or extraordinary virtues associated to it). The main types of saints include the martyrs, confessors, monastics, doctors, missionaries, and mystics. The biographical study of their lives is also an interesting aspect here referred to as hagiographies. The church emphasizes a Communion of saints which is a spiritual unity of the living Christians and the faithfully departed Christians. It also recognizes the veneration and devotion to saints, where just like Mary they can be prayed to for intercession. It is important to clarify that although the saints are venerated, and devotional prayer is encouraged they should not be worshiped like God.

Bibliology- This is the Christian study of all things to do with the bible. Since it is such a large book with many hidden meanings and parables, scripture study is very necessary to better understand theology. One of the first main questions of bibliology is what can be taken literal and allegorical. There is also the question of it's authority, which in certain Protestant sects is considered the primary authority even above the church. Another topic of bibliology is the canon of books that make up the Old Testament and the New Testament (also the ones that have been excluded from the bible).

• Exegesis- The practice of specific interpretation of a biblical verse.
• Typology-Finding the foreshadowing and fulfillment between the Old Testament and New Testament. There were many Christian theologians who once sought to break free from the Hebrew Old Testament, but it was later considered an important source of the faith and the prophecy of Christ.

Trinitarian Concepts

Trinitarianism - Holds that God consists of 3 persons; God the Father, Jesus the Son, and the Holy Spirit. They are all co-eternal as one divine being with three distinctions. This became one of the most contested topics of the 3rd- 5th century, since it was never clearly defined in Christ's teachings. It became the primary reason for the Council of Nicaea in 325 and later the Council of Constantinople 381. The main Trinity church fathers include Athanasuius, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus is the main Christian Dogma that was established by the early church fathers. The Holy Trinity is still the basis of Catholic teaching to this day.

• Homoousionism- In regards to the trinity it means the same essence or of the same substance. This is a key word in defining the relationship of the trinity. This was the term used by the Council of Nicaea.

Binitarianism- The belief that there are two persons withing the Godhead; God the Father and Jesus the Son. The Holy Spirit is not considered of divine essence or personhood, rather as a created spiritual being. This goes against the belief of Trinitarianism.

Unitarianism- God is one person, not three persons. Jesus is considered a human messiah, prophet, and teacher who is distinct from God. The Holy Spirit is seen as the power and influence of God. This would fall in the anti-Trinitarianism school with key thinkers such as Michael Servetus, Joseph Priestly, and William Ellery Channing.

 Adoptionism- This is the concept that Christ was born a human but was later chosen or "adopted" as the divine son of God. He was a natural born human that was later gifted with God's divine power thru the Holy Spirit. So the idea is that he was not co-eternal, but rather inherited God's divine powers as his "adopted" son after his baptism.

Ebionism- This was a Jewish-Christian view held that Jesus was a prophet but he was not God. He was considered the messiah, but he was not preexistent and of the same being as God. Along with this view is the belief that Jesus was the natural son of Mary and Joseph and not incarnated thru a virgin birth. This is quite similar to adoptionism, in which Christ was later chosen as God's word thru baptism.

Docetism- This is the belief that Jesus appeared to be human, but in truth was fully divine all along. That basically implies that Christ was acting thru all his human emotions and pain. The pain on the crucifix was not real, since he was already a complete divine being. The obvious problem with this concept is it demeans Christ's effort to save humanity. The Orthodox Church teaches that Christ lived on earth as both human and divine nature.

Modalism/Sabellianism- This is a different interpretation of the Trinity, where God is one person who reveals himself in different roles; Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. In this view they are not 3 distinct persons, rather one person in three different forms or modes. The Orthodox church rejected this claim by recalling the scriptural baptism of Christ, where Christ was in the presence of God and the Holy Spirit. All three were together simultaneously in three different personas.

Subordinationism - This is the view that the Son and the Holy Sprit are inferior to God the Father. It is essentially a form of Arianism that holds that Christ and the Holy Spirit were created by God, and were not co-eternal. It seems like a reasonable concept since God is the Father and the Source of everything. Especially when considering that Jesus was "begotten" from God, and the Holy Spirit "Proceeds" from the Father and the Son. Nonetheless the Church stood by their Nicene doctrine that Jesus and the Holy Spirit were of the same being as God, and ultimately equal to him (not subordinate).

Arianism- This was one of the most controversial movements of the 3rd and 4th century led by the priest Arius of Alexandria. He taught that Christ was created by God, as his son, and was not co-eternal. Only God is eternal, and after Christ was created he also became divine, but was never equal to God the father. His famous line was that there was a time when the son was not. This movement was ultimately rejected at the Council of Nicaea and deemed as heresy. However the following continued to hold some prevalence for the next 300 years, even among kings and emperors. 

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  Semi-Arianism-This is the middle ground between Arianism and Nicene Christianity which taught that Christ was "similar" to God, but still not of the same essence. It rejected that Christ was made as taught by Arius, but also rejected that Christ was of the same substance as taught by Nicaea. Semi-Arianism ultimately favored the subordinationism concept, that Christ may be pre-eternal, but he was not of the same divine substance as God and therefore was inferior.
• Homoiousianism- In regards to the trinity it means a similar essence or substance. This position was held by Arianists and Semi-Arianists which considered Jesus not quite co-eternal and of the exact same essence as God.
• Homoianism- In regards to the trinity, the son is like the Father. Remove the word essence or substance and just simplify it by stating that Jesus is like the father. He is not co-eternal or of the same essence, but he is simply like the father.
• Anomoeanism- This was an extreme form of Arianism which believed that the Son was unlike the essence of God. It was taught by the theologian Eunomius of Cyzicus who argued how could Christ be equal to God if God was unbegotten and Christ was begotten. This is a fair question which always boggles my mind, and also falls in the umbrella of subordinationism. Anyway you slice it or phrase it the fact is Christ came from God, and that makes a relationship based on a source and a dependent.

Pneumatomachi- This was a Maceonian movement that occurred during the 4th century that was against the divinity of the Holy Spirit. They were known as "Spirit Fighters" who felt that the Holy Spirit should not be considered a godhead of the trinity. While they believed God and Jesus Christ were of divine substance, the Holy Spirit was seen as a holy messenger and subordinate power that flowed from God. Therefore the Holy Spirit was not believed to be the personhood of God, rather a created spirit meant to intercede for God.

Logos- This is a central Christian concept, introduced by the Apostle John, that defines Christ's relationship with God, as the Word of God. It was made clear in his opening passage, "In the beginning was the Word (Logos), and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." This line is considered the most important argument in favor of the holy trinity where it clearly states that Christ was there in the beginning, as God, but also as the Word of God. The term Logos can also be considered the pre-human divine form of Christ that existed before he underwent human incarnation. Therefore this term helps bridge the relationship between God and Jesus, as God's eternal word that became incarnate as flesh. The term "word" is also fitting since Christ preached the good word as a prophet.

Filioque- This was the controversial addition to the Nicene Creed that stated the Holy Spirit proceeded from the father "and the son". The concept first emerged at the Third Council of Toledo in 589, and eventually spread into the western Roman church. It became official church doctrine in 1014 which became the main catalyst for the Great Schism of 1054. The Eastern Orthodox was against this concept, because they felt both Christ and the Holy Spirit technically proceeded from God as the source. Thus by adding "and the son" it could almost be seen as a form of subordinationism where God and Jesus are put on a higher pedestal than the Holy Spirit.


Christology Concepts

Nestorianism- Christ is two persons with two natures. This concept was taught by Nestorius who made it appear that there were two persons cooperating simultaneously withing Jesus (the human person and the divine person). The bigger question later became if they are two different persons, how are they united as one. This became heavily contested at the Council of Ephesus, which declared Nestorius a heretic. Nonetheless his followers created one of the first major schisms with the Orthodox church, that became the Church of the East.

Apollinarism- Christ is one person, with a human body but a divine mind. Taught by Apollinaris of Laodicea. Deemed as heresy.

Dyophystism/Chalcedonism- Christ is one person, with two natures (fully human and divine without confusion, change, division, or separation). Established at the Council of Chalcedon (451).

Monophysitism- Christ is one person, with one united nature (human and divine). However his human form is diminished by his divine form. This was taught by Eutyches and eventually deemed as heresy.

Miaphysitism- Christ is one person, with one united nature seen as the incarnate word of God. The key here is that his humanity is not diminished by his divine form but is equal in it's disctinction). This concept was taught by Cyril of Alexandria but later refined by Dyophystism. Nonetheless the disagreement over this nature led to the anti-Chalcedonian movement which led to the Oriental Orthodox schism.

Dyoenergism- Christ is one person with two natures and two energies (human and divine). Miracles like raising Lazarus are his divine energy at work, while eating, sleeping, and feeling emotions are his human energy at work.

Monoenergism- Christ is one person, with two natures but one energy (united form of human and divine). While the two natures are distinct, the activities of Christ are inseparable or united as one divine-human act. Deemed as heresy.

Dyothelitism- Christ is one person with two natures, two energies, and two wills (human and divine). This adds another layer to the Christology debate, by separating Christ's actions from God's will. His human will was at work at the Garden of Gethsemani crying for the trial to pass, while his divine will was at work in accepting his role to die on the cross to save humanity. This concept was advocated by Maximus the Confessor.

Monothelitism- Christ is one person with two natures, but only one will (united form of human and divine). Similar to Monophystisim or Monoenergism this holds that since Christ was one person, he should have one divine-and-human essence that is united and not distinct. Deemed as heresy.

Kenosis- What did God the Son empty himself of when he became human as recorded in Philippians 2:7? The Orthodox View holds that in the incarnation God limits his full divinity by assuming humanity. This leads to an interesting follow up question, that maybe he becomes 50% God and 50% human. But the Orthodox would once again reiterate that it is only his humanity that is limited, not his divinity. So even after the incarnation he is still 100% God, but now with an additional nature that is 100% humanity. And with that humanity comes the frailty of hunger, pain, fatigue, and death. So the term "emptying" could be seen as a form of humbling himself.


Christian Worship Concepts

Exaltation-This is a term that describes the praise and glory of the Holy Trinity. It is especially prevalent after Jesus Christ defeated death and ascended into heaven. This is a literal moment where Christ overcame humiliation and was raised up on high in glorious fashion. This is in line with the complete honor and worship of God who is the source of our salvation.

Humiliation- This is also an important Christian term that describes lowering oneself for a greater good. Before Christ could achieve his exaltation, he had to endure harsh humiliation, suffering, even death. This was especially humbling for someone of divine nature who lowered himself to the pains and limits of the human form. This is also an importance practice for the laity to show reverence thru prayer, fasting, kneeling, and completely worshiping God.

Typology- This is the biblical study of relating the Old Testament to the New Testament. It is an important form of exegesis that holds the Old Testament as the foundation and fore-shadowing of the New Testament. It especially pertains to the prophecies of the coming of Christ, that are seen in the New Testament as a fulfillment of the Old Testament.

Kyrios- A title used to describe Jesus as Lord and Master. This essentially associates God as the supreme and kingly authority of all.

Propiation- Is a redemptive act to restore favor. It is the crucial reasoning for Christ’s death on the cross. This act of propiation was needed to save humanity in the eyes of God, for their Original Sin of disobedience. Since the sin was committed by humans, Jesus has to become a human so as to restore the species’ honor. This sacrifice was done out of love for humanity, but also to restore God’s favor with humanity

 Expiation- This is the removal of sins. It goes hand-in-hand with Christ’s act of atonement and propiation to account for the sins of humanity. In order to restore favor with God, Christ had to expiate these sins thru a total act of love, which was his sacrifice. This brought reconciliation with God, and the cleansing of sin. However it’s important to clarify that Christ’s death only cleansed our sins, but not eliminated. This was basically a fresh reset, where humanity now had a path to clean their own sins thru Christ’s example.

Imputation- This also ties to Christ’s sacrificial atonement to God, where his righteous reflects on all of humanity. Thru believing Christ we inherit his righteousness. This concept somewhat falls in line with the Union of Christ and is especially popular in Reformed Protestant churches.

Union with Christ- This is the belief that Christian followers are spiritualty connected to the life of Christ since he became human and died for our sins. His resurrection, righteousness, and victory over sin can also be achieved by those who follow him thru this connection. This union thru Christ also serves as a mediatrix to God, making all humanity children of God.

Theosis- This is a popular concept within the Eastern Orthodox church that is a state of being in complete participation in God's life. This is best achieved by imitating the life of Christ. Thru this Union with Christ we can achieve the higher state of Theosis, which is basically a heavenly union with God.


Christian Metaphysical Concepts

Incarnation- This is the concept which describes God's transformation into human form, via the Immaculate Conception of Mary. According to Christian theology God the Son was co-eternal with God the Father since the beginning of time. However at this particular moment, God the Son became flesh thru the incarnation. He became one person in two natures (divine and human). The reasoning for this incarnation, was God needed to be a human so as to redeem human's original sin (caused by Adam and Eve). It was thru becoming human and dying for their sins, that he was able to restore humanity in the eyes of God the Father. This is considered one of the most important concepts of the faith.

 Pre-existence- This is the concept that all human souls exist before their birth. It was most famously promoted by the theologian Origen, however later deemed as heresy by the Orthodox Church. I personally like this concept, since it falls in line with the eternal state of Christ. If humans are in true Union with Christ, then their spiritual nature was also there at the beginning. A celestial realm of spirits and angels where God puts the spirit into physical existence at one’s conception. This would complete the notion that the spirit is truly eternal; before, during, and after life. The church however holds that the spirit is created during birth.

Consubstantial- This is the term that describes Christ as of the same being, essence, or substance as God. It is an important term to help comprehend the Holy Trinity, where both Jesus and the Holy Spirit are of the same nature as God. They are three different distinct persons that share the same consubstantial divine being.

Hypostatic Union- This is the Orthodox term for the united nature of Christ. It is accepted by all Christians that Christ was of divine and human nature that coexisted together. The debate between the early eastern churches (known as Miaphytism) held that Christ was one incarnate united nature. While the Chalcedonians believed that he was of two distinct natures without confusion or separation. Nonetheless both beliefs held that Christ was equally human and divine, and not absorbed by his divine power.

• Communicatio Idiomatum- properties of both natures are attributed to the one person. So even though Jesus has human moments and divine moments they are both of the same person.

Hypostasis- This is an important Greek term that is used to define the distinction of the Trinity. This is essentially the technical term for “person” which is seen as the three concrete realities of the same being that is God. It’s a very trick term however since it’s important to recognize their distinction while still maintaining their one essence.

• Enhypostasis- The nature within that person. This is important for clarifying Christ’s two natures within the same person.
• Anhypostasia- The two natures are not within two persons. They are two distinct natures within the same one person.
  

Prosopon- This pertains to the appearance of the three persons of the Trinity. It falls in line with the hypostasis since it helps distinguish the three persons that make up the Godhead. They are often visually manifested as theophanies. God the father is depicted thru fire or a cloud; Christ is depicted in human form; and the Holy Spirit is often depicted as a dove.

Ousia- This pertains to the essence of a being. It is basically used to describe what the being fundamental is. It is an important term for understanding the Trinity, where God is seen as one divine essence with three persons. This divine essence is seen as eternal, uncreated, omnipresent, supreme, all-powerful, total goodness, and total perfection.

Physis- This pertains to the nature of a person or being. It is what makes them who they are, like their physical form, their character, and their will. This especially applies for Christ after the incarnation who has two physis (divine and human), while God and the Holy Spirit are purely of divine physis.

Perichoresis- This pertains to the shared presence and consciousness of the trinity. Although they are three different persons, they still share the same coexistence as one united being.

Nominalism- This is a theological approach introduced by William of Ockham which establishes one’s individuality among a group (referred to as universals). For example “humanity” or even a “garden” exists only in name, and does not define the individual human or plant. There is no shared reality among the group, rather a category that defines the group of individuals. This can pertain to God’s absolute freedom over any form of universal categorization.


Salvation/Grace/Free Will

Synergism- God’s grace comes first, and human free will cooperates with it. The two work together in achieving salvation. This is considered the Church’s Orthodox approach to free will and God’s grace.

 Monoenegism- God’s grace is the primary driver of salvation, while the free will is incapable of choosing God without this assistance. This aligns quite well with Augustine’s controversial theory of predestination. It is a popular concept among Protestant churches.

Pelagianism- According to teachings of Pelagius humans do NOT inherit the guilt and Original Sin of Adam and Eve. They have pure free will to choose between right and wrong. This was of course deemed heresy by the Orthodox church, especially Augustine’s concept of God’s grace needed for salvation.

Semi-Pelagianism- This is more of a compromised version of total free will with God’s grace. It still holds that humans do not inherit the Original Sin, and begin with free will, but also needs God’s divine assistance to achieve salvation.

Arminianism- Humans inherit Original sin, and God’s grace comes first, but the free will can still choose to reject it (also known as prevenient grace). Unlike Orthodox Augustine teaching where God’s grace guides us to our righteous decisions, Jacobus Arminius holds that we still have the free choice. This is a Protestant concept that blends synergism with Pelagianism.


Church Governance

Apostolic Succession- All appointed popes, bishops, and clergy are the chosen successors of the apostles, who were chosen by Christ. These Apostles were witnesses to the truth, and shared their teachings with a succession of disciples and bishops. This concept honors the traditional lineage of the apostles as the foundation of the church.

Iconoclasm- Opposition against display and veneration of religious images. This was a big movement during the 8th-9th centuries also known as the Byzantine Iconoclast Controversary. Many felt the portrayal of holy figures was sacrilegious and all icons should be destroyed. The movement was later reversed by the teachings of John of Damascus who held that Christ presented himself thru the Incarnation and thus should be portrayed.

Iconodulism- In favor of religious images and icons as legitimate representations of Christian worship. It’s champion was John of Damascus who taught that God made himself visible thru Christ, so all Christians should be allowed to see his visible representation. It became official doctrine at the Second Council of Nicaea 787.

Theocracy- Government controlled by the church. Most prevalent during the medieval age of the Papal States. It was also in use during the Reformation in territories of Geneva, Switzerland influenced by John Calvin as well as Puritan New England from the 1600-1700s.

Erastianism- Church controlled by the government. Most prevalent during the Byzantine Empire as well as English Protestant Reformation. After the Reformation nany churches in Northern Europe established state churches such as the Church of England, Scotland, Sweden, and Denmark.

Secularism- This is the complete separation of the church and state as two independent governing bodies. During the Middle Ages this was especially a problem where many kingdoms and empires were influenced by the church and vice-versa. By the Reformation and Enlightenment this separation of authorities became all the more official.

 Conciliarism- This is a democratic process of ecclesiastic matters where the council of bishops has authority over the pope. The movement was especially prevalent during the 1400s but later rejected by papal authority.

Congregationalism- This is also a democratic process where the congregation has the primary authority over the clergy. It is especially popular among many Protestant Christian churches that emphasize community over hierarchy.

Papalism (Papal Supremacy)- This is the current Catholic governance structure where the pope has supremacy on all ecclesiastical affairs. It is considered somewhat authoritarian, especially the associated practice of papal infallibility. However this is in accordance with the apostolic succession and the primacy of Peter. Thankfully the pope never truly abuses his power on church matters.

Autocephaly- This pertains to a self-governing church, that has separated from the central authority. In most cases this pertains to the Eastern Orthodox Church that is no longer in communion with the Roman papacy. These churches govern themselves in accordance with their Christian doctrine, independent from any primary authority.

Ecumenism- This is the practice of unity among all churches. It is a fairly modern stance the church has taken in the last hundred years, primarily at Vatican II. Instead of it’s earlier days of Inquisition it seeks to cooperate with all various religions. Not just Orthodox and Reformed Christians but even Muslims, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists, etc.


Eschatology (End Times)

Millennialism- Like most of Eschatology, the concept of the Millennium is derived from the Book of Revelation. This the period of a thousand years where Christ returns to Earth and reigns with his angels and saints. However like most of the book this passage is shrouded with mystery, parable, and allegory and is difficult to fully interpret.

Amillennialism- This holds that Christ’s1000-year reign mentioned in the Book of Revelation is purely symbolic. We are already experiencing his reign thru the church and will fully experience him in heaven.

Premillennialism (Chiliasm)- This holds that the 1000-year reign is a physical return of Christ to establish his kingdom on earth. During this time Satan is bound and restrained to prevent sin from corrupting humanity. After the 1000 years Satan is released and he leads another terrible rebellion which leads to the Judgement Day.

Postmillennialism- This holds that Christ will not be on earth during the 1000-year reign but will still oversee a millennium of great triumph from heaven. This still includes a period of great evangelization with the restrain of Satan. It is different from amillennialism in that it is not symbolic, but seen as an actual period of Christian triumph on earth before the second coming of Christ.

Final Rebellion- Satan eventually leads one final rebellion on earth which is no doubt like the Apocalypse or Armageddon. It could also be tied to events mentioned in the Book of Revelation such as the Antichrist, the False Prophet, and the Beast. Humanity is nearly corrupted and obliviated until God intervenes. Satan is finally thrown into a Lake of Fire and defeated once and for all by God (thus death is defeated).

Second Coming of Christ- The belief that Christ will return again in glory. This is mentioned many times in the Gospels and is a core belief of Christianity (and Islam). It is considered a sign of the end-times which leads to the defeat of Satan, the final judgement day, and the beginning of the final eternal state.

Last Judgement- After the defeat of Satan, God judges the living-and-the-dead as a whole. This is not to be confused with the particular judgement that pertains to an individual after death. This is the judgement of humanity as a whole and reunites them with their physical bodies. However once again the righteous are separated from the damned into a new eternal state of heaven and hell (or annihilationism).

Annihilationism- This is the belief that after the Final Judgement, the bodies and souls of the damned are simply destroyed or cease to exist. This would be the alternative to them being sent to some form of eternal hell with Satan (referred to as the Lake of Fire). While it does make sense, the annihilation of souls is considered unorthodox. The church holds that even the wicked souls do not cease to exist, but are left in a state of eternal punishment.

New Earth- After the Judgement Day, all the righteous are reunited with their body and soul in an eternal heavenly state. This marks the unification of heaven and hell, into one physical paradise of total perfection. Humans are now free from death, sin, suffering, sickness, and any form of corruption. They are in full communion with one another, with themselves, and with God.


Early Christian Movements

Ebionites- This was an early Jewish-Christian movement, that accepted Jesus Christ as the Messiah within the Jewish framework. While accepting Christ, they continued to honor the Jewish foundational teachings of the Torah, circumcision, dietary laws, and the observance of the Sabbath. They eventually became the subject of the Council of Jerusalem in 49 AD, which sought to welcome non-Jews and Gentiles to the Christian faith. This could almost be seen as the first severing of the Jewish-Christian ties.

Montanism- An early Christian movement led by Montanus that emphasized the Holy Spirit was directly inspiring it’s believers. They practiced strict rigorism, discipline, fasting, sexual purity, and a belief that the end times were near. The famous Trinitarian theologian Tertullian was also associated with this heretical movement, which is why he was not canonized.

Novatianism- An early movement led by Novatian who practiced rigorism and firmly held that Christians who had renounced their faith during persecutions should not be allowed to return. This was especially directed at clergy members, who should not be allowed to lead the church. This ultimately led to a schism, where the church allowed lapsed members to rejoin thru repentance.

Donatism- Similar to Novatianism this movement was also on how to deal with Christians who had recanted during persecutions. The focus here was mostly on the administering of sacrament, and that a priest who had renounced to Roman authorities should not be allowed to re-administer the sacraments. Augustin of Hippo became the great defender against Donatism by claiming the sacraments were acting thru Christ, not the moral perfection of the priest.

Platonism- This is the ancient teachings of the Greek philosopher Plato, applied to Christian theological concepts. Many Christians accepted Plato’s teaching that the visible world was not the highest form of reality, and that there was a spiritual world that transcended the physical world. He also introduced the concept of “Forms” which were eternal realities that were manifested into our physical being. These philosophical concepts fell in line with the Christian teachings of God, heaven, and the spirit.

Gnosticism

Gnosticism- This was a broad movement during the 2nd and 3rd century that held there was secret knowledge to be gathered from Scripture and the teachings of Christ. It was thru careful study and prayer that one could understand this secret knowledge which was required for salvation. Some of it’s core concepts included the incomprehension of God, the imperfect material world of humans, a divine element within humans, and salvation thru knowledge. It was ultimately rejected as heresy, because the ministry of Christ was done in public and not in secret.

Marcionism- This was an early church movement lead by Marcion of Sinope who taught that the God of the Old Testament was different from the God of the early Testament. He also established one of the first defined canon of biblical books. It’s actually a fair question when you consider the wrath of God in the Old Testament vs his love-and-forgiveness in the New Tesament. Marcion’s teachings were later rejected as heresy due to the fulfilment of the Old Testament prophies in the New Testament. This movement is also often associated to Gnosticism.

Valentinianism- This was a movement associated with Valentius in the 2nd century who taught one of the most detailed forms of Gnosticism. He essentially created a cosmic hierarchy of multiple gods (known as Aeons) answering to the one ultimate God the Father. Some of these aeons included Sophia the mother of wisdom, and the Demiurge, the ignorant creator of materialism. Humans are made up of matter, soul, and spirit, and need to achieve gnosis for salvation.

Sethianism- This was a Gnostic movement that considered Seth (son of Adam and Eve) as the spiritual father of humanity. This would fall in line with the Book of Genesis where Adam, Eve, and Cain are all corrupted by sin. After the death of Abel, Seth becomes the third son and is considered the true blood lineage of God’s creation. While it is a practical concept, the movement dives deeper into cosmology and aeons (multiple gods). It’s ultimately a form of integrating Christian belief with Greek mythology and was thus deemed as heresy.

Manichaeism- This was a popular religious movement during the 3rd century that influenced the great Augustine of Hippo before he converted to Christianity. It was founded by the prophet Mani from the Persian Empire who merged concepts from Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism. The essential teaching was a form of dualism, where everything was broken up into a symmetrical balance of light-and-darkness. This held that there were two gods; one good and one evil, and all material was at conflict with one another. The key to salvation is liberating the divine light from the corrupted evil matter, thru gnostic spiritual knowledge and purification.

Mandeism/Sabianism- This is one of the few early Gnostic church movements that still exist today. It incorporates Jewish, Greek, and Christian concepts especially pertaining to baptism. They consider John the Baptist as the central religious figure and washes our sins away (and not Jesus Christ). They also believe in the gnostic practice of transcendence, spiritual knowledge, light-vs-dark, purification, and the soul’s journey to God.


Major Theological Schools

Origenism (Teachings of Origen of Alexandria)

• Allegorical and literal interpretation of bible
  

• Pre-existence of Souls *(Controversial)*

• Apokatastasis- Universal restoration of all souls, even the damned, thru a process of purification *(Controversial)*

• God’s Absolute Transcendence- Beyond physical creation

• The Logos as the Eternal Word and Son of God

• Rationality of Creation- A world of order that is not chaos

• Free Will- Humans freely choose to move towards or away from God

• Soul’s Journey to God- The soul’s journey is one of virtue, prayer, knowledge, and purification

• Christ’s role as Savior and Physician- He revealed the divine father, healed the soul, defeated evil, and restored humanity to God

• Spiritual Warfare- The existence of a spiritual realm that is constantly influenced by angels, demons, saints, and spiritual powers

• Theosis- Humanity’s participation in God’s life (living in union and accordance to a divine life)

Cappadocianism (Teachings of the Cappadocian Fathers: Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa)

• 
  The Trinity as one essence in three persons (God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit).

• The Full Divinity of the Holy Spirit (not just a spiritual force, but an actual person of the Trinity)

• Consubstantiality- The Son and the Holy Spire are of the same substance as the Father. Co-eternal from the beginning.

• Apophatic Theology- God is completely incomprehensible
  

• Theosis/Deification- Participation in God’s life is a necessary spiritual transformation to salvation

• Perichoresis- The Trinity acts as one divine will, action, and nature. Not as three independent gods.

• Apokatastasis- Evil cannot coexist forever with the goodness of God, and is thus slowly removed and restored thru purification *(Controversial)*

Augustinianism (Teachings of Augustine of Hippo)

• Original Sin- Humanity inherited the sins of Adam and Eve
  

• Grace is Necessary for Salvation- All grace comes from God and enables salvation.
• 
  
• Free Will- Even though humans are born with this grace (moral compass) they still have the free will to choose and reject it.

• 
  Predestination- God has already chosen those who will be saved over others *(Controversial)*

• God’s Sovereignty over creation

• Evil is a Privation- It is a lack of God’s goodness. It is a corruption of the free will or natural order. It is the absence of light, warmth, and all that is good.

• Hierarchy of Love- Putting love of God above all else, including all created things that often lead to sin

• Two Cities of God- The visible material world, and the invisible spiritual world.

• The Church’s role as the Channel of Sacraments- This puts more emphasis on the church as whole and what it stands for rather than it’s appointed clergy (which in some cases can be corrupted or imperfect)

• The Importance of Sacraments- Salvation comes thru the Sacraments, which brings us in Union with Christ

• Infant Baptism- Infants need baptism to cleanse the Original Sin

• Eternal Damnation- Strongly rejected Apokatastasis and held that damned souls cannot be restored but must live in eternal punishment

• Just War Theory- God’s mercy can be taken into account during legitimate war. This holds that it can be morally permissible if murder is committed thru defense or obligation rather than out of hatred.

Thomism (Teachings of Thomas Aquinas)

• God’s Pure Actuality- The absolute perfection of God with no unrealized potential

• Divine Simplicity- God exists as a whole and is not made up of parts, properties, matter, etc.

• Difference of Essence and Existence- Humans have an essence that makes them who they are as well as a consciousness that gives them existence. However essence and existence are the same for God. His essence is his existence.
  

• Analogy of Being- We cannot speak about God, the same way as all other living creatures

• Four Causes
• Material cause (what something is made of)- the tissues, organs, bones of a human body
• Formal cause (what makes it what it is)- the rational soul of a human body
• Efficient (what produced this)- the parents, the Holy Spirit, and God
• Final causes (what is it’s purpose)- Human fulfillment and salvation

• 
  Potentiality and Actuality- Change is the actualization of a potential. All things have a form of changing state (potential), such as an acorn becoming a tree or a hot cup of coffee becoming cold. However God does not. God does not change and is a constant state of actuality.

• Natural Law- Through God’s goodness he creates a world of moral principles. Humans are born with a moral compass to seek God, preserve life, seek truth, social interaction, rational development, and do good things.

• Virtue Ethics- While everyone has a moral compass to do good, it is mostly a potential and not a guarantee. Humans know what is good, but it is not always so easy, and they must decide thru their free will. They must practice the seven virtues of Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance, Faith, Hope, and Charity. The more frequent these virtues are practiced the more it becomes habit and thus one becomes an actual virtuous person.

• The Five Ways
• Motion/Change- Since everything in this life is moving and changing it needs something that is stable and does not move, yet rather is causing the movement. That is God.
• Causality- Everything that happens in this life is the product of a long chain of cause-and-effect. God is the cause of everything.
• Contingency- All existence in this life comes to an end. However once again there must be a source that maintains stable existence. That is God.
• Degrees of Perfection- Everything falls on a spectrum of quality; wealth, beauty, health, age, goodness, likability, strength, etc. God is the maximum form of all these perfections.
• Teleology- Everything follows some form of natural law towards a goal, purpose, or final end. Like an eye that sees, an acorn that grows, and an intelligent human who knows right from wrong. The source of this natural order is God.

• Faith and Reason- Human reason can be useful to understanding God, but it cannot provide all the answers.

• Natural Theology vs Revealed Theology- Natural Theology is the process of human reasoning without revelation. Revealed theology is what is understood from scripture and God’s revelation.

• Creation ex nihilo- The universe was not created out of something. It was created out of nothing.

• Providence- God’s guidance and ultimate plan for humanity to reach it’s proper destination.

• Human Soul-The rational form of the body, that gives it life and essence. When the body dies the soul continues to exist. This could be connected to our immaterial intellect that can also comprehend immaterial things (such as dreams or philosophy)

• Intellect and Will- The soul is the main motor that develops intellect which helps humans understand and reason. That intellect is then applied into action, which is known as the will. In a similar way this is the Trinity at work; God being the soul, Jesus the intellect, and the Holy Spirit the will.

• Beatific Vision- The highest form of beauty and happiness that is achieved in knowing God thru the intellect and the will.

Scotism (Teachings of John Duns Scotus)

• Univocity of Being- The concept of “being” must apply to both God and humans in order to comprehend the matter. This in no way states that humans are equal to God, only that they both share in the concept of being.

• 
  Formal Distinction- Different attributes within the same thing. Such as one’s nature or individuality. Goodness, wisdom, and mercy are different aspects within the one reality that is God.

• Haecceity (Thisness)- What makes someone particular, unique, and individual. It is their “thisness”.

• Primacy of the Will- Higher emphasis on the freedom of the will over the intellect.
  

• Contingency and Freedom- The concept that things could have been done differently. God freely chose to create the universe with life, and humans can also freely make choices. However this also means that things are not on a set course but could unfold differently.

• Immaculate Conception of Mary- Mary was conceived without sin. Scotus is considered the champion of this concept that became official dogma in 1854.

• Primacy of Christ- Christ is the central part of God’s plan for creation. All creation, life, and natural history pertain to God’s plan of salvation thru Christ.

• Natural Theology- The approach of human reason in understanding God

Palamism (Teachings of Gregory Palamas)

• 
  Distinction between God’s essence and God’s energy- His essence is everywhere and incomprehensible however he manifests himself through uncreated energy (as was seen in the divine light of the Transfiguration). He is one God, with a distinct energy that can be experienced by humans. This is the basis of Theosis and the meditative practice of Hesychasm. (*Controversial*)

• Theosis- Human’s participation in God’s divine life. Living a life in Union with Christ.
  

• Light and Grace as an Uncreated Energy- God manifests himself thru uncreated light and grace to bestow his glory.

• Hesychasm- A practice of deep meditation, prayer, and contemplation to get closer to God.

• Vision of God- Humans can still experience God thru mysticism and spiritualism, while still never fully comprehending his essence

• Synergy- Salvation involves cooperation between God’s grace and human free will

• Divine Simplicity- God remains one being, despite his omnipresent nature of divine energies and three persons.

Lutheranism (Teachings of Martin Luther)

• Sola Fida- Salvation by faith alone not thru works or church (*Controversial*)

• Sola Gratia- Salvation comes entirely thru God’s grace. It is not earned by humans *(Controversial)*

• 
  Sola Scriptura- Scripture is the main authority of doctrine, not the church magisterium *(Controversial)*

• Priesthood of All Believers- All Christians have the same access to God as the clergy. This strongly rejects the Papal Authority and the Apostolic foundation (*Controversial*)

• Bondage of the Will- Humans cannot freely turn to God. Salvation begins with God’s guidance and grace.
  

• Christ’s Atonement for the Original Sin- The Gospels proclaim Christ was sent to forgive humanity and restore favor with God

• Theology of the Cross- God revealed himself thru Christ’s Crucifixion on the Cross

• Real Presence- Christ is present in the Eucharist

• Baptism and Eucharist- Considered the most important sacraments instituted by Christ in the Gospels

• Two Kingdoms- Similar to Augustine’s Two City Concepts, where we live in a spiritual realm and a material realm.

• Vocation is not just a calling to be a priest, but rather a calling to serve God (no matter the profession or role). This supports his concept of the Priesthood of All Believers.

Calvinism (Teachings of John Calvin)

• Human beings are completely corrupted by sin. This means they cannot turn to God by their own ability, rather need the grace of God to show them salvation.

• 
  Double Predestination - God chooses who will be saved and who will be damned at conception. Humans are either with or without grace from the beginning according to God’s will. (*Controversial*)
• Election- The ones God chooses for salvation
• Reprobation- The ones God does not select for salvation that are ultimately condemned.

• Unconditional Election- God makes his choice on whom he will save thru his own will and
  purpose. He does not choose the person because they chose him. He chooses them at conception, and thus they are unconditionally drawn to him.

• Limited Atonement- Christ’s Death was intended for those he chose to save. This is seen as a particular redemption for not all of humanity’s sins, but only the one’s that were elected by God.

• Irresistible Grace- All grace comes from God, so an elected person is naturally drawn to God.

• Perseverance of the Saints- All those that have been chosen, will maintain their grace for eternity. “Once saved, always saved”.

• God’s Sovereignty- God is sovereign over all creation and controls everything that will come to pass. This is also referred to as divine determinism.

Jansenism (Teachings of Cornelius Jansen)

• 
  Strong Original Sin- Humanity is deeply corrupted by the Fall of Adam and Eve

• Predestination- Supports Augustine’s concept that God devices who will receive salvation (*Controversial*)
  

• Irresistible Grace- Humans cannot resist God’s saving grace. Their free choice to do good comes thru the guidance of God’s grace

• Moral Rigorism- Strict discipline should be practiced on a daily basis thru prayer, repentance, confession, the Sacraments, and holy life

• Infrequent Communion- Only receive communion if you are in a state of purity. This means all sins should be cleansed thru repentance prior to receiving the Eucharist.

Molinism (Teachings of Luis de Molina)

• Three Logical Moments of God’s Knowledge
• Natural Knowledge- God knows everything that could possibly happen, so he creates a natural world to his liking
• Middle Knowledge- God knows what humans would choose in every possible situation in this natural world
• Free Knowledge- God knows what will happen after the free choice is made

• 
  Middle Knowledge- God knows what we would choose in a given circumstance, and thus puts us in an environment accordingly. The choice is still ours to make however.
  

• Libertarian Free Will- This holds that we are free to make our own choices, and neither is fully determined by God. When you make one choice, you could have also chosen otherwise. Neither choice is set in stone by God. He only creates the world around that choice. This is in contrast to Calvinism which holds that God ordains everything that shall come to pass.

• God’s Providence- God is the orchestrator of natural order and circumstances, who gives us free will, while guiding us to our fates.
  

• God’s Consideration of Possible Worlds- During creation God considered every possible world, creature, and sequence of events, before creating the world that we know. He particularly chose to create this world with these creatures because the events unfold in a matter that he finds pleasing.

• God’s Knowledge Does Not Determine the Choice- Even though God knows the choice we will make, it does not influence or cause that choice. The choice is still free for humans to make, regardless of God’s knowledge about the choice.