Political Study: Fascism

I always enjoyed talking politics in college, and started to really dive deeper during my time in Chicago 2008. It was then that I began to understand the true difference between a republican and a democrat or the far-right and far-left ideologies. At the end of the day it boils down to one major factor; the government's role in the distribution of wealth. The far-left would favor a classless society where the government controls all components of the wealth distribution in a more balanced approach. Whereas the far right would favor a capitalist society with zero government intervention to allow for complete free trade, thus creating a society of classes. However the exception to these economic approaches is the ideology of fascism, which almost incorporates communist and capitalist ideals.

The key component of fascism is a totalitarian regime, where one single ideology controls the government. This does away with a democratic system of elections or checks-and-balances, rather a complete authoritarian approach to governmental affairs. It is a practice of nationalism, where individual liberties are set aside for the good of the nation. The economy allows for some free trade, but it is ultimately controlled by the government. However it is also very against the communist ideals of class struggle, and rather puts heavy emphasis on private property and a social hierarchy. This totalitarian state is achieved thru political violence, censorship, and propaganda to impose their will upon the people. 

The key element of a fascist government is their supreme leader, referred to as a dictator. The role of the dictator is far more privileged than that of a president, almost on par with a king or an emperor. It's his vision and decisions that drive the course of the nation. This was certainly the case for fascist Italy under Mussolini, fascist Spain under Francisco Franco, and fascist Germany under Adolf Hitler. However Germany's fascist ideology had a heavy component of racism and is thus considered it's own form of political ideology known as Nazism. I intend to dive deeper into the ideology of Nazism, as that was without question the most influential fascist government. But first I want to cover the history and distinguishing components of fascism. I touched upon this in 2012, but that was more of a focus on Mussolini's Rise to Power rather then the political ideology (see Rise of Italian Fascism)

 

Origins of Fascism

Throughout the 1800s to early 1900s the monarchy system had begun to collapse and was being replaced by federal democracy. The United States was the first government to establish a true democracy free from one single leader. On the flip side the French Revolution demonstrated early examples of a totalitarian state with militarism and political purging lead by their leader Napoleon. However it wasn't until WWI that the ideologies of totalitarianism were put into effect as many empires and monarchies began to collapse. The first nation to develop a true totalitarian structure was the Soviet Union, thru their Communist Revolution in 1917. Italy became the first Fascist totalitarian state in 1925, and can be considered the true origins of fascism.

The term "fascism" came from a nationalist movement within Italy to join World War I as a way to strengthen their influence. It's image was a fasces bundle of wood and an axe which represented the power of the law. Benito Mussolini was a key figure in this movement and established the League of Revolutionary Action in 1914. This notion of national socialism began to gain traction throughout the war. It essentially rejected the ideas of the French Revolution such as liberty and individualism in place of duty to one's nation. After the war, Mussolini's party transformed into the Italian Fasces of Combat and eventually the National Fascist Party by 1921. Germany also established their own national socialist party in 1919 known as the German Worker's Party. Both political parties held similar ideals of national pride while rejecting communism. 

The first official fascist manifesto was written by Alceste de Ambris and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in 1919. It was published in the Italian newspapers and displayed their ideas of national syndicalism, militarism, and futurism. However this manifesto was still a bit on the left-leaning side trying to appeal to universal suffrage and the working class. By 1922 Mussolini seized power of Italy and began to put some of these ideas to practice, such as state-police. However he eventually revised the manifesto to empower the wealthy in the 1932 Doctrine of Fascism. This can be seen as the definitive fascist manifesto with it's far-right ideology that supports free trade in a totalitarian controlled state. So surprisingly it's fair to say that it was Mussolini and not Hitler who is regarded as the founder of fascism. 

Political Components

At it's core definition fascism is the empowerment of the nation. It puts the nation above everything else, including individual rights. It is the utmost practice of patriotism where the nation is united into one political party that shares a common goal for the betterment of the nation. In order to achieve this unified state of nationalism, the government is structured into one of totalitarianism (where the state holds complete influence over it's people). It is ruled by a a single dictator, who has supreme power over all, and portrays a divine cult of personality. The dictator is able to maintain total control of the government thru it's paramilitary institution. All components of the government run thru the dictator and fall in line with Fascist party ideology. 

Another key element of their government is a high emphasis on militarism. This way the government can control the population thru fear and violence as needed. They also use the military as a positive form of propaganda, to embed cultural values of duty, discipline, and honor (as if glorifying war). This war mongering agenda served as a rally cry to continuously strengthen the nation's people. It is also a necessary tool for expansionism which is another important element of fascism. Both Italy and Germany sought to not only regain lost territories but conquer new territory throughout Europe to expand their nations into empires. 

Economic Components

The key distinction of a fascist versus communist government is the role they play in the economy. Fascists supported the ideal of corporatism, which still empowered the wealthy and sought to eliminate class conflict. Labor unions and strikes were driven out and replaced by syndicates that supported the corporate interest. Therefore business owners could still maintain their lands and profits as long as they adhered to the state's political direction. It was a form of authoritarian capitalism, like a partnership between the private and public sectors. Whereas a communist government was completely against free trade, controlled all industry, and made all social classes equal regardless of skill or talent. 

Another key component of the fascist economy was a nationalized industry, where the majority of trade and production was done within the state. This form of economic self-sufficiency (also known as autarky) sought to eliminate the need for foreign resources. High tariffs were put in place to discourage foreign exchange of imports. The state also put heavy emphasis on their infrastructure (roads, railways, buildings, etc) which boosted employment. Their main industry became their war machine, strengthening their military thru new armament production and facilities. The fascist ideal of expansionism was a necessary economy component to increase their national resources. This was ultimately achieved with their priority on military production. 

Social Components

The final key element of the fascist revolution was the complete overhaul of social values. This to me is always the most interesting piece, where an entire society can somehow get behind a political ideal as they did for Italy and Germany during the 1930s. This was ultimately achieved thru a very charismatic leader such as Mussolini or Hitler that established a cult of personality. Thru passionate oratory and propaganda this head-of-state quickly became a heroic idol among the people. The population was also influenced by the paramilitary who simply used "bully tactics" to coerce their agenda among the people. Thru heavy propaganda and the use of political violence the state is able to clearly send out their message to fall-in-line or get out. 

The public's role in a fascist government is vital and required for the production and advancement of the nation. This new ideal is heavily influenced by the government thru propaganda and new education. One of the key elements is that individual liberties such as freedom of speech, press, or assembly are abolished. Everything must be done for the betterment of the nation. Weakness is discouraged thru social Darwinism where only the strong shall survive. Strength, honor, duty, and national pride are encouraged among the people (especially by joining the paramilitary or the army). 

Traditional gender roles sought to replace feminism, by encouraging large families where the man went to work or war while the woman cared for the family. The youth was the vital cornerstone in developing a new society of national pride for the future. Education was completely reformed to promote all Fascist ideals. The people were expected to admire their national heritage (whether that be the glory of Rome or their Catholic faith) yet also welcome this age of rebirth. Modernism and technology were seen as crucial movements towards a more efficient nation. It was essentially a complete overhaul of society, that underwent a brief cultural renaissance, before burning in a firestorm. 

Historical Study: Hitler's Inner Circle

I've been thru countless WWII phases from so many different aspects. I just recently finished up another dive into the Pacific War, from the Japanese perspective. I really had no intention whatsoever of returning to this topic, until I watched the 2004 German film Downfall directed by Oliver Hirschbiegel. I've seen the film a number of times now, but this time it especially hit a core of interest. I enjoy the raw depiction of Hitler's final days in his bunker, and the crumbling defeat of Nazi Germany. The film has climbed the ranks, and should easily make the top 50 in my next revision to the list. I also intend to someday read the firsthand accounts of secretary Traudl Junge who was there as it all unfolded. I would go as far as to say this film provides the most vivid depiction of WWII on par with Saving Private Ryan, Schindler's List, and the Pianist. 

I think it was shortly after college, whilst living with my parents, that I first got intrigued by the rise of Nazi Germany. Most of our lives as students we are given the American perspective, but for one I was curious to see the Germany perspective (purely from an academic stance). What most intrigued me about the rise of Hitler, is how an entire nation could buy into this wicked ideology of fascism. These were a maniacal group of extremists, (quite similar to the Japanese mindset I have recently studied),where they were proudly willing to die for their ideology. Racism was at the core of their belief, where they felt a widespread sense of white "Aryan" supremacy and especially antisemitism. And while the Jews took on the brunt of the persecution, it's important to note that anyone who was not purely of white race was to be condemned. 

I can't help but see some similarities in today's administration in regards to racial tensions, censorship, secret state police, and a new sense of authoritarianism. It's no doubt becoming a scary time, maybe even more so since I recently got laid off, and thus perhaps the pull to this historical period. I've already written a few posts about German History, most notably in 2014 when I made a deep dive into German culture; (see German History, Rise of the Third Reich). I'd love to eventually dive deeper into this political ideology of Nazism/Facism, but that might come at a later time. For now I'm going to focus on the key players and leaders within Hitler's inner circle. These were people that completely devout to Hitler's vision and just as racist, maniacal, and wicked as he was. I want to clarify that this post, is entirely an academic study and in no way whatsoever an endorsement of their activities or beliefs. In some ways it can be seen as a lesson to learn and deter from current political trends. 

Leaders of the Nazi Party

Adolf Hitler

Position: Fuhrer of Nazi Germany

Rise to Power: After serving in WWI, Hitler felt heavy resentment at their defeat and quickly got involved in far-right politics. He joined Anton Drexler's German Worker's Party and within a year he transformed these it to the Nazi Party in 1920. He recruited members of the occultist Thule Society, with an emphasis on racial theory, and he designed the party's new emblem of the swastika. His rise to power was mostly due to his passionate oratory which recruited many followers such as Rudolf Hess, Hermann Goring, and Ernst Rohm. In 1923 his failed coup d'état Beer Hall Putsch landed him a year in prison during which he wrote his political manifest known as the Mein Kampf. From there he began a new political public campaign, where the Nazi Party quickly rose to prominence and helped him assume the chancellorship by 1932. From there Hitler was able to expel all his political opponents in the Night of the Long Knives and became the Fuhrer (dictator) by 1933. From that point the Third Reich of Nazi Germany was his national state to control and dictate his extreme ideology.      

Fate: After 12 years as dictator, six of which were at war with Europe, he met his fall at the Battle of Berlin in April 30th, 1945. He took up residence in an underground bunker for 105 days while the Soviets began their bombardment of Berlin. Facing total defeat he chose to commit suicide by gunshot with his wife Eva Braun. His body was burned so no trace was discovered. 

Henrich Himmler

Position: Leader of the SS Protection Squadron; Schutzstaffel

Rise to Power: He joined the Nazi Party in 1923 and served as a bodyguard for Hitler where he was able to climb the ranks thru his devotion. By 1929 he assumed leadership of the SS and transformed the organization into an elite political police force providing security, surveillance, and state terrorism. It's often believed that Himmler was tasked to restructure the secret police force known as the SS in opposition to Ernst Rohm's powerful paramilitary force of the SA (Sturmabteilung) also known as brownshirts. Not to mention there was also the gestapo state police force to ensure Hitler had total authoritarian control. Himmler played a pivotal role in managing these secret police forces while also contributing to the development of the Jewish Holocaust. He was obsessed with mysticism, the occult, and established the Ahnenerbe in 1935 to advance the notion of Aryan supremacy. He appointed Reinhard Heydrich to oversee the Final Solution. By 1943 Himmler assumed the office of minister of the Interior as well as command of various army units towards the end of the war. 

Fate: Towards the end of the war in March 1945, Himmler attempted to begin peace talks with the Allies without Hitler's knowledge. Hitler was furious and heartbroken and this betrayal and ordered that he be arrested. Himmler went into hiding for a short period before he was captured by the British forces and committed suicide by cyanide in May 23, 1945.

Joseph Goebbels

Position: Minister of Propaganda

Rise to Power: He joined the Nazi Party in 1924 and quickly became a prominent writer as well as orator within the party. He began leading propaganda efforts to boost the popularity of the Nazi party while emphasizing antisemitic rhetoric. When Hitler came to power in 1933 he was appointed minister of propaganda, where he took control of all forms of mass media including the press, television, radio, film, and theatre. Following the Nazi's defeat at Stalingrad when the war took a sudden turn, he began a fierce media campaign of "total war". His intentions were not only to uplift morale, but also instill that every citizen fight till their last breath. Goebbels remained Hitler's most loyal follower up until the end. 

Fate: Goebbels moved his family into Hitler's underground bunker by April 22nd, 1945 during the Battle of Berlin. He stood alongside Adolf refusing to accept defeat all the way until the end. He infamously had his children killed by cyanide, and then committed suicide with his wife by gunshot (just a day after Hitler had committed suicide). His body was also burned so no trace could be found. 

Hermann Goring

Position: Chief of the Air Force (Luftwaffe)

Rise to Power: He was a fighter pilot ace of WWI, considered a hero by the German people. He was one of the early members of the Nazi party and joined Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. During his time in prison he began an addiction to morphine and other drugs, which continued until his death. When Hitler took power in 1932 Goring became president of the Reichstag, the congress which essentially became ineffective when Hitler took the role as supreme dictator. Goring was also pivotal in establishing the Gestapo secret police force in 1934 which he gave control to Himmler. Perhaps his most prominent role was as chief of the Nazi air force known as the Luftwaffe. He also headed up an economic program known as the 4-year plan to prepare Germany for war in 1936. Goring was designated as Hitler's chosen successor. However during the war he quickly lost favor with Hitler, after his failed bombardment of Britain in 1940, failing to defend the air raids over Germany, and subsequent failure to supply German soldiers at Stalingrad. By 1943 Goring took more of a backseat to the leadership affairs on focused on collecting artwork stolen from Jews.  

Fate: By April 22nd, 1945 knowing that all was lost Goring sent a telegram to Hitler requesting to fulfill his role as Hitler's appointed successor. This was no doubt the final straw in an icy relation which infuriated Hitler. He had Goring removed from all his roles and ordered his arrest. After Germany surrendered to the allies, Goring turned himself in and became a prisoner of war for nearly a year. He was one of the chief suspects during the Nuremberg Trials of 1946 and was sentenced to death. Goring was able to smuggle a cyanide pill and committed suicide before his execution. 

Martin Bormann

Position: Chief of the Nazi Party Chancellery

Rise to Power: He was a member of the Freikorps paramilitary organization in 1922 and was later arrested for aiding his friend Rudolf Hoss in a political killing. After his release from jail he joined the Nazi Party in 1927 and became chief of staff in 1933 for the deputy Fuhrer Rudolf Hess. Within a few years he was a key member of Hitler's inner circle, and eventually took over Hess's role as Chief of the Nazi Party as well as Hitler's personal secretary. He was strongly antisemitic and anti-Christian. He was considered the gatekeeper to Hitler, and managed all his meetings, information, logistics, and legal documentation. 

Fate: He joined Hitler in his underground bunker during the final five months of the fall of Nazi Germany. After Hitler's death, Bormann attempted to flee Berlin and escape from the Soviet Red Army, however his body was never officially found. It is believed that he likely committed suicide a few days later in Berlin. He was tried in absentia during the Nuremberg trials and was sentenced to death by hanging. His body was not officially discovered and confirmed until 1973.   

Rudolph Hess

Position: Deputy Fuhrer of the Nazi Party

Rise to Power: He is often considered one of Hitler's earliest and most devoted followers beginning in 1920. He was at Hitler's side during the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch and helped Hitler write his Mein Kampf political manifesto. Despite being considered one of Hitler's closest, most trusted friends, his role was rather limited as a vice president or assistant. Furthermore his role as deputy ended abruptly when he suddenly decided to fly to Scotland in an attempt to negotiate peace with Britain in 1941. This not only led to his capture by the British army, but also his expulsion from the Nazi Party. This was ultimately a reckless attempt by Hess to regain some authority in his ceremonial title as deputy, which was eventually by the Nazis as a foolish effort to undermine Hitler. 

Fate: After the war, he was later tried during the Nuremburg Trials and was one of the few prominent Nazi members who was not sentenced to death. This was mostly due to his capture by the British during the majority of WWII as well as his mental state. He was however sentenced to life imprisonment, and spent nearly 40 years in Spandau Prison before committing suicide in 1987 at the age of 93.  

Reinhard Heydrich

Position: Director of the Gestapo and Reich Security

Rise to Power: After being discharged from the navy, he was hired by Henrich Himmler in 1931 as the head of a new internal intelligence force within the SS. Admired for his Nordic Ideal, he had a stoic sharp demeanor, often described as a man with an iron heart. Heydrich created the Sicherheitsdients (SD) which was an intelligence organization equivalent to the CIA or FBI. He also was given total control of the Gestapo which he used to swiftly irradicate any political dissidents. He was especially harsh against the Czech resistance and oversaw many task forces of death squads. In 1939 he established the Reich Security Main Office which unified his gestapo with the SD. So he essentially became like J Edgar Hoover, yet even more powerful since he sat on a mountain of information with an entire police force. Furthermore and perhaps his greatest claim to infamy was that he became the chief architect of the Holocaust. He chaired the Wannsee Conference in Jan 20th, 1942 where a Final Solution was decided to eliminate all Jews in Europe. He thus oversaw the administrative and logistical aspects of building 6 new extermination camps such as Auschwitz, and having nearly 11 million Jews deported to these camps via railway. 

Fate: On May 27th, 1942 Heydrich was assassinated by Czech resistance fighters in Prague during Operation Anthropoid. In response to this the Nazis brutally executed nearly 1300 Czechs and razed the villages of Lidice and Lezaky. It was fitting that the Butcher of Prague should thus meet his fate in Prague. He is considered one of the most cold-hearted/evil members of Hitler's inner circle. 

Albert Speer

Position: Reich Minister of Arms and War

Rise to Power: Albert Speer joined the Nazi party in 1931 and brought a unique architectural skill which quickly elevated his status. Hitler commissioned Speer to design the Reich Chancellery (government headquarters) as well as the Nazi Party rally grounds in Nuremburg which included the Zeppelinfeld grandstand. Speer became a close friend of Hitler, and accompanied him in Paris after the defeat of France. Like many in Nazi Germany, both Hitler and Speer envisioned a new age of German glory and thus intended to display this in their architecture. Speer's most ambitious project was tto completely rebuild Berlin after the war, known as the Welthaupstadt Germania. This would essentially transform Berlin into a modern day Rome or Athens with a mile long avenue, a massive triumphal arc, and a monumental dome that would seat 180,000 people, known as the Volkshalle (people's hall). The construction was however halted by 1943 after setbacks in the Soviet Union. Throughout the war Speer also played a pivotal role in the industrial production of armaments.   

Fate: In his final visit with Hitler in April 22nd of 1945, Speer confessed that he disobeyed Hitler's order to destroy all their architectural achievements. After the fall of Germany he was taken into custody and was among the 24 war criminals tried at Nurembourg. He was however not sentenced to death, rather 20 years of imprisonment for his role in using slave labor and contributing to the war machine. He later wrote a memoir which depicted himself as the "good nazi", who simply wanted to create art rather than buy into the racial ideals. Many scholars state this as a myth however due to his use of slave labor, involvement in evicting Jews, overseeing the armaments production, and his knowledge of the final solution. He was released from prison in 1966 and died in 1981 at the age of 76. 

Ernest Rohm

Position: Chief of the Sturmabteilung (SA) 

Rise to Power: He fought in WWI and was an early member of the Nazi Party. He joined Hitler during the failed 1923 Beer Hall Putsch in Munich. He spent 15 months in jail due to treason and later had a falling out Hitler. After his release he emigrated to Bolivia where he served as advisor to their army. He was later recalled by Hitler in 1930 to oversee the newly established paramilitary organization known as the SA. Also known as the brownshirts this was a group of militia thugs that used violence to influence their political party. Despite his open homosexuality he still held an affluential role as chief of the SA, and stood at the 2nd highest level in the Nazi party under Hitler. Distrust however began to grow by 1933 mostly from Henrich Himmler, due to Rohm's increasing power with a paramilitary force of nearly 3 million men. Himmler was able to convince Hitler that Rohm intended to turn the SA into a national army and overthrow Hitler.

Fate: Hitler initiated the Night of the Long Knives from June 30 to July 2, 1934 to purge all political opponents. Rohm was one of the highest ranking victims of this political massacre, which included 85 assassinations. 

Hans Frank

Position: Governor General of Occupied Poland

Rise to Power: He was one of Hitler's earliest friends and members of the Nazi Party and took part in the Beer Hall Putsch. By 1933 he became the chief legal advisor Hitler and the Nazi Party. In 1939 he was appointed governor-general of occupied Poland. He oversee many of the concentration and extermination camps that spanned throughout Poland. 

Fate: He was captured by American troops on May 4th, 1945 and attempted to commit suicide twice. He was one of the 24 war criminals of the Nuremburg Trials, and the only one (aside from Albert Breer) to show any regret. Despite his clear appeal for forgiveness he was still sentenced to death due to his crimes against humanity of which 4 million people were killed under his jurisdiction. 

Joachim von Ribbentrop

Position: Minister of Foreign Affairs

Rise to Power: He was already a well established diplomat by the time he joined the Nazi Party in 1933. Hitler valued his experience and connection in foreign affairs and elevated him to a prominent role. He was first appointed ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1936, before assuming the role as Reich Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1938. He was the key facilitator of the alliance with Mussolini's Fascist Italy, known as the Pact of Steel in 1939. He also coordinated the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union. He supported a Japanese attack on the United States as well as declaring war on the United States. He was however very against an invasion of the Soviet Union. He also played a pivotal role in deporting the Jews across various occupied territories to concentration camps. His influence began to diminish however by 1941 due to inner rivals such as Martin Bormann and a total lack for diplomacy.  

Fate: He went into hiding for a brief period after the war but was eventually arrested on June 14, 1945. He was found guilty in the Nuremburg Trials for his role in the Holocaust, and sentenced to death. 

Adolf Eichmann

Position: Chief Coordinator of the Final Solution

Rise to Power: He joined the Nazi Party in 1932 and served as an SS officer. He later was promoted to Heydrich's SD intelligence organization where he became director of Jewish affairs. He was responsible for all logistical elements pertaining to the Jewish Question (first by deporting them to ghettos, then sending them to concentration and extermination camps). He joined Heydrich's committee at the Wannsee Conference in 1942 where it was decided to completely exterminate all Jews in the Final Solution. He was alongside Heydrich one of the most evil figures of Hitler's inner circle. 

Fate: He managed to escape Germany after their defeat in 1945 and hid in various small towns up until 1950. He then moved to Argentina via an underground ratline that specialized in hiding Nazi war criminals (where nearly 9000 Nazis escaped thru). Eichmann was however eventually hunted and captured by Israeli agents and brought to trial in 1960 where he was sentenced to death. 

Alfred Rosenberg

Position: Head of Nazi Foreign Policy Office

Rise to Power: He was one of the early founders of the Germans Worker Party alongside Dietrich Eckart. He was most known for his political and racial theory which demonstrated the Nazi's hate for the Jews. This ideology was made clear in his 1930 creed, the Myth of the Twentieth Century (considered the 2nd most popular Nazi manifesto after Mein Kampf). He continuously shaped Nazi ideology thru prominent roles within the Nazi Party overseeing the cultural influence. He established the AMT Bureau as a surveillance organization to purge anything that was deemed harmful to the Nazi culture. He also established organizations to loot art and plunder from defeated nations. He became minister of the occupied eastern territories in 1941 which mostly included the Baltic states and parts of Soviet Union. During this time he oversaw many elements of the Holocaust.  

Fate: He was captured on May 19th, 1945 and sentenced to death at the Nuremberg Trials for his role in the Holocaust. 

Wilhelm Keitel

Position: Chief of the Wehrmacht High Command

Rise to Power: Keitel served in WWI and remained with the German army thru Hitler's rise to power. He swore allegiance to Hitler and assumed the high command of the armed forces in 1935. However despite being the chief field Marshall of all military forces, he was essentially Hitler's puppet. Hitler was very involved in the military tactics and made most the important decisions regarding the warfare plans. He was however quite ruthless against prisoners of war and ordered many mass executions. 

Fate: After the death of Hitler, Keitel was the highest ranking officer to sign the final surrender to the Allies on May 8th, 1945. He was later found guilty of crimes against humanity at the Nuremburg Trials and sentenced to death. 

Other Prominent Figures

• Ernest Kaltenbrunner (Head of SS). Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• Wilhelm Frick (Minister of the Interior) Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• Julius Streicher (Chief Editor of the antisemitic newspaper Der Sturmer). Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• 
  Fritz Sauckel (Chief Diplomat of Slave Labor) Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• Alfred Jodl (Chief of Staff for Armed Forces) Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• Robert Ley (Head of German Labour Front). Died by suicide in Oct 1945. 
• Arthur Seyss-Inquart (Chancellor of Austria/governor of occupied Netherlands) Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• Walther Funk (Minister of Economics) Sentenced to life imprisonment. Released in 1957 and died in 1960.
  
• Erich Raeder (Former Chief of German Navy) Sentenced to life imprisonment. Released in 1955 and died in 1960.
• Karl Donitz (Chief of Navy/Hitler's successor). Sentenced to 10 years imprisonment and died in 1980. 
• Baldur von Schirach (Chief of Hitler Youth) Sentenced to 20 years imprisonment and died in 1974.
• Konstantin von Neurath (Former Minister of Foreign Affairs) Sentenced to 15 years and died in 1956. 
• Heinrich Müller (Director of the Gestapo) Was last seen with Hitler at the Fuhrer bunker in May 1945 and was never captured after the fall of Germany. His final fate remains a mystery yet is believed to have died during the Battle of Berlin. 
• Leni Riefenstahl (Propaganda director of Triumph of the Will and Olympia) She was not arrested or charged with war crimes deemed as a "fellow traveler" and not an official member of the party. 

Historical Study: Air Bombings of Japan

As I wrap up my summer of Japanese appreciation, I wanted to revisit the Pacific War theater of WWII. Quite often when we think of WWII, we quickly associate he Nazis and the European theater and perhaps overlook the Japanese aspect. I made a deep dive study on this aspect in 2020, focusing on the Second Sino-Japanese War as well as the Pacific theater of WWII (see Sino-Japanese War and Pacific War). While I focused on the sea battles and ground assaults, I think I may have overlooked the vicious campaign of air raids against Japan. While the US was eager to end the war by this point, there's no question that they committed some atrocious crimes against humanity during this period. I think this was especially made clear to me after watching the very sad film, Graves of the Fireflies. 

Japan suffered the worse aerial bombardment during WWII by far, with a civilian death toll of approximately 800,000 nearly double that of Germany. No doubt some of this was pay back for the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, however by this point WWII had achieved a scale of Total War. This meant that the fighting was not just directed at the soldiers, but also their infrastructure which included the civilians who helped supply the war effort. Another reason the US decided to ramp up it's aerial bombardments against Japan was to bring a swift end to the conflict and avoid a full land invasion. Thus the firebombing and atomic bombs were used as a shock-and-awe campaign to brutally end Japanese moral and force them to quickly surrender. 

While it still remains a heated debate today, I think the dropping of the atomic bombs was one of the worse atrocities against mankind. It was total genocide on par with the Holocaust or Chinese massacres. The firebombing against Tokyo and other Japanese cities were almost worse by death toll. This was an utter attack against innocent civilians, which in some cases brought them instant death before they could even realize it. I think the United States should have faced a tribunal of war crimes, just the same as the Nazis and Japan did. In this post I want to create a timeline of the air raids against Japan during WWII. The bombing of Japan can be broke into three main campaigns; the Matterhorn Campaign consisted of ineffective precision bombing, which led to the devastating firebombing and atomic campaigns.

Aircraft Carrier Raids

Doolittle Raid

Date: April 18, 1942

 

Target City: Tokyo, Japan 

Aircraft/Bomb Total: 16 B-25 Bombers; 64 bombs dropped

Death Toll: 50 civilians killed

Significance: This was the first American response to the attacks on Pearl Harbor of December 7th, 1941. The Doolittle Raid was actually one of seven aerial attacks coordinated from navy ships in 1942. Aside from the main attack on Tokyo, there were also various bombings of the Marshall Islands, Gilbert Islands, Rabaul, Wake, Marcus, Salamaua and Lae. While the raids caused minimal damage they still were used to boost American morale. In response to these attacks the Japanese launched a major offensive into China, known as the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign, to punish them for aiding the American bombers. This resulted in the death of approximately 250,000 Chinese civilians. 

Precision Bombing Raids

Operation Matterhorn

Date: June 1944 to January 1945

Target City: Yawata, Japan; Anshan Manchuria; Bangkok, Thailand; Hankou, China; Singapore; Omura, Japan.

Aircraft/Bomb Total: 405 B-29 Superfortress bombers

Death Toll: 300-700 civilians

Significance: The Americans launched this precision bombing campaign from bases in India, Sri Lanka, and China. The goal was to take out Japanese industrial facilities while also testing their new massive B-29 aircrafts. The first mission occurred on June 5, 1944, with a bombing of the Japanese railyards in Bangkok, Thailand. This was followed by a raid on the steel factories of Yawata, Japan and Anshan, Manchuria. During this operation the Americans also conducted their first firebombing mission in Hankou, China. The operation was deemed mostly ineffective due to strong winds and costly logistics out of China. 

Firebombing Campaign

Operating Meetinghouse

Date: March 9-10, 1945

Target City: Tokyo, Japan

Aircraft/Bomb Total: 279 B-29 Bombers; 1665 tons of incendiary bombs

Death Toll: 90,000-100,000 civilians

Significance: General Curtis LeMay changed tactics after the failures of Operation Matterhorn. After several successful military campaigns the Americans were able to capture the Marshall Islands and make that their new air force base (much closer than their previous bases in India and China). They also shifted from the use of high altitude precision bombs to low altitude incendiary bombs. This method was far more devastating to the urban populations due to their wooden buildings, which erupted into wildfires throughout the night. This bombing resulted in the death of nearly 100,000 civilians and to this day remains the most deadly air raid in history (even more so then the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki). 

Nagoya Firebombing

Date: March 12, 1945

Aircraft/Bomb Total: 300 B-29s, 1000 tons of incendiary bombs 

Death Toll: 3,866

Significance: This was a prime target of Japanese military production particularly their aircraft industry. The firebombing had a devastating impact on their ability to produce aircraft, while also taking a heavy death toll on civilians.

Osaka Firebombing

Date: March 13-14, 1945

Aircraft/Bomb Total: 274 B-29s, 1733 tons of incendiary bombs

Death Toll: 10,000

Significance: This was Japan's 2nd largest city after Tokyo, and thus also a key target for military operations particularly in the industries of steel and machinery. The intention was not only to destroy these factories but also the work force, by burning their cottage homes. The attacks left more then 500,000 homeless. 

Kobe Firebombing

Date: March 16-17, 1945

Aircraft/Bomb Total: 331 B-29s, 1700 tons of incendiary bombs

Death Toll: 8,841

Significance: It was the largest port in Japan, and thus another key target for their shipping operations and manufacturing. Although the Americans did meet heavy resistance at this bombing, they still achieved their main goal thru various raids. The film Graves of the Fireflies (my inspiration for this post) took place in Kobe. By the end of the war 55% of the city was destroyed. 

2nd Tokyo Firebombing

Date: May 25-26

Aircraft/Bomb Total: 470 B-29 Bombers, 3623 tons of incendiary bombs

Death Toll: 7000

Significance: After the first devastating attack of Operation Meetinghouse, Tokyo was hit several more times. The 2nd most devastating attack occurred on May 25th targeting the residential neighborhoods. The goal was once again to destroy the work-force while also breaking the Japanese moral to surrender. By the end of the war, nearly 50% of Tokyo was completely destroyed. 

Yokohama Firebombing

Date: May 29, 1945

Aircraft/Bomb Total: 517 B-29s, 3200 tons of incendiary bombs

Death Toll: 14,000

Significance: It was also an important industrial/port city producing ships, automobiles, aircrafts, and machinery. It was the largest air raid by air fleet and amount of bombs dropped on a city, surpassing Operation Meetinghouse (although the death toll was nowhere in comparison). 58% of the city was completely destroyed. 

Toyama Firebombing

Date: August 1-2, 1945

Aircraft/Bomb Total: 182 B-29s, 1400 tons of incendiary bombs  

Death Toll: 2,149 

Significance: Toyama was the most devastated by the firebombing, in which 99% of the city was completely destroyed. However it was a smaller city and many of the civilians were able to escape due to prior warnings. 

Other Heavily Damaged Cities by Firebomb

• Fukui: July 19, 1945 (1,576 killed). 86% city destroyed. 
• Hitachi: July 19, 1945 (1,275 killed). 72% city destroyed. 
• Fukuoka: June 19, 1945 (953 killed). 24% city destroyed. 
• Kure: July 1, 1945 (2,152 killed). 42% city destroyed. 
• Mito: August 2, 1945 (499 killed). 69% city destroyed. 
• Nagaoka: August 1-2, 1945 (1500 killed). 65% city destroyed. 
• Sakai: July 9-10, 1945 (1863 killed). 48% city destroyed. 
• Shizuoka: June 19-20, 1945 (2,000 killed). 66% city destroyed. 
• Toyohashi: June 19-20, 1945 (624 killed). 61% city destroyed. 
• Tsu: July 24, 1945 (1239 killed). 69% city destroyed
• Maebashi: August 5, 1945 (1048 killed). 64% city destroyed.
• Okazaki: July 19, 1945 (280 killed). 32% city destroyed.
• Himeji: July 3, 1945 (787 killed). 49% city destroyed. 
• Kofu: July 6, 1945 (1,127 killed). 78% city destroyed. 
• Gifu: July 9, 1945 (863 killed). 63% city destroyed. 
• Kochi: July 3-4, 1945 (1,667 killed). 55% city destroyed.
• Kawasaki: April 15, 1945 (846 killed). 36% city destroyed. 

Atomic Bomb Campaign

Hiroshima Atomic Bomb

Date: August 6th, 1945

Aircraft/Bomb B-29 bomber (Enola Gay) with a uranium-235 bomb (Little Boy). 

Death Toll: 80,000 instantly (146,000 by end of 1945). 

Significance: This was the first dropping of an atomic bomb with the force of 15 kilotons of TNT. The bomb was a breakthrough in nuclear engineering, designed by Robert Oppenheimer during the Manhattan Project. The controversial use of this bomb was intended as a shock-and-awe campaign to bring a swift end to the war thru psychological impact. It's destruction was devastating and instantaneous with a blast radius of 1 mile. The bomb exploded slightly above ground with a blinding white light that could be seen from 15 miles. This was quickly followed by the blast impact, that was destructive within a mile radius, but could be felt within a 12 mile radius. This was then followed by a firestorm that spread throughout the city. Many who survived the initial blast later died from burns and radiation sickness.     

Nagasaki Atomic Bomb

Date: August 9, 1945

Aircraft/Bomb: B-29 bomber (Bockscar) with a plutonium-239 bomb (Fat Man) 

Death Toll: 40,000 instantly (80,000 by end of 1945).

Significance: Just 3 days after the first atomic bombing this one followed, once again to cause shock-and-awe, but also to demonstrate the sheer power of this weapon. This bomb was more powerful then Hiroshima with 21 kilotons of TNT, however less devastating due to the geographical valley it was dropped in. Nonetheless it still caused instantaneous death and destruction with a mushroom cloud that could be seen 250 miles away. A few days later, accepting the power of this weapon, Japan announced it's formal surrender on August 15th. While these bombs helped bring a swift end to the war, it almost seemed unnecessary at this point for a nation that was already practically defeated. One could even make the case that poor Japan was used more as a guinea pig of this new powerful weapon (primarily as a threat to the Soviet Union). To put it simply these two atomic bombings as well as the atrocious firebombing raids were unethical crimes against humanity. 

Book Review: Memoirs of a Geisha

As I began my Japanese appreciation phase, I had two popular books in mind to fully emerge into the culture; Shogun and Memoirs of a Geisha written by Arthur Golden. Shogun provides a great glimpse into the feudal days of Japan while Memoirs of a Geisha provides more of a modern look (albeit it takes place during the 1930s-1940s). But my real familiarity with this story came from the critically acclaimed 2005 film directed by Rob Marshall. The film was a work of art, receiving a total of 6 Oscar nominations and 3 wins. And honestly the film kept pretty true to the book. To be fair though I was probably more interested in the setting then the actual story as I watched this film. I remember my sister-in-law Shawnna always raved about this book, so I decided now was the perfect time to give it a go. 

Book Synopsis

As the title suggests this is semi-biographical story of a woman's life as a geisha. Set in 1929 a young girl named Sakamoto Chiyo lives in a rural fishing village known as Yoroido. Her parents are both unhealthy and in poverty, so a family friend named Mr. Tanaka convinces the parents to sell the children. Chiyo is sold to an okiya (geisha house) while her sister, Satsu is sold to a brothel in Gion, Kyoto. Chiyo is introduced to the okiya family which includes the patrons known as mother, auntie, and grannie all of which are very strict businesswomen. The house also has various maids, apprentices, and their star geisha Hatsumomo (who takes an immediate disliking to Chiyo). Chiyo is of course very sad the first few months at her new house, missing her parents and her sister. She even tries to run away at one point, however the plan goes wrong and her mother patron decides she can not be trusted as a geisha investment. 

After several years as a maid, Chiyo meets a friendly stranger in the streets, known as the Chairman who offers her a handkerchief and some money to buy a treat. It is the first act of kindness she has felt in a very long time, and suddenly changes her perspective on the geisha life. The only problem however is her patron mother has decided she does not wish to invest in Chiyo's training. This changes however when another popular geisha named Mameha (an enemy of Hatsumomo) decides to take Chiyo on as an apprentice. Mother makes a deal with Mameha to invest in her training in return for a share of the profits. Chiyo thus becomes an apprentice geisha to Mameha, with the new given name of Sayuri.

Sayuri's early training is very difficult due to sabotage from her okiya sisters Hatsumomo and her apprentice Pumpkin. Hatsumomo finds a way to attend every event that Sayuri and Mameha are at, in an effort to humiliate Sayuri. Hastumomo is no doubt jealous of Sayuri's natural beauty, but also wishes to strengthen her position in the okiya as well as see her own apprentice Pumpkin become her heir. Mameha however coordinates some brilliant strategy by introducing Sayuri to several prominent business men, including Dr. Crab, the Baron, and Nobu (a friend of the Chariman). Eventually Dr. Crab wins the bid to take Sayuri's virginity (a ceremony known as mizuage) for a record price. This enables Sayuri to pay off her debts and win favor with her patron mother who later adopts Sayuri in favor of Pumpkin. This eventually drives Hastumomo mad, he descends into alcoholism is eventually thrown out of the okiya. 

Sayuri's success is somewhat short-lived however due to the ongoing crisis of WWII which eventually leads to the closure of all geisha houses in 1944. Sayuri finds salvation from a previous customer Nobu, who sends her to the countryside to avoid any factory work. After the war ends, Sayuri returns to work with a closer relationship to Nobu, who intends to be her danna. However Sayuri does not wish to be sworn to Nobu and instead still has longing feelings for the Chariman. She develops a scheme to dissuade Nobu from being her danna, by having him discover her with another man. Sayuri asks her old friend Pumpkin to guide Nobu into a room, where she will be making love with another man. Sayuri is able to coordinate her part of the plan, but she is shocked when Pumpkin brings in the chairman instead of Nobu. Pumpkin declares it was payback for Sayuri taking away Pumpkin's chance to be adopted. 

Sayuri is devastated at the way this scheme played out, horrified that the Chairman (the man she loved), saw her with another man. However in a shocking twist it is revealed that the Chairman helped orchestrate Sayuri's raise to the top ever since he saw her in the streets. He gave Mameha the idea to adopt Sayuri as her younger sister, and he stood back while his business partner Nobu favored Sayuri. Seeing Sayuri with another man was difficult for the Chairman to see, however he realized Sayuri was doing it to scare off the Nobu, and thus confessed the truth to Nobu. This led to Nobu withdrawing his desire to be Sayuri's danna and opening the door for the Chairman to do so. Thus it was something that both Sayuri and the Chairman wanted. Years later Sayuri would move to New York City to start her own teahouse with the financial and emotional support of the Chairman. 

The Characters

Chiyo (Sayuri): She is a very softspoken humble girl who has no doubt endured hardships by being separated from her parents and sister and brought into a life of servitude. Her perseverance however is a testament to her strength and it's encouraging to watch her raise to the top and get everything she wants in the end. 

Hatsumomo: She is the favorite geisha of the house Sayuri stays at, and quickly becomes Sayuri's sworn rival. Throughout most the story Hatsumomo is bent on sabotaging Sayuri's career, mostly due to jealousy of Sayuri's beauty. Hatsumomo eventually gets what she deserves when Sayuri is able to become the new favorite of the okiya. 

The Chairman: He is wealthy business director of an electric company and is the first man to show sincere kindness to Sayuri. This act of kindness inspires Sayuri to become a geisha with hopes of one day being his mistress. We later discover that the chairman helped orchestrate Sayuri's raise to success.

Mameha: She is another popular geisha in the Gion district who decides to take Sayuri as her apprentice. Mameha is a very clever geisha who uses her powerful connections to help Sayuri rise the social ladder throughout the geisha industry. 

Mother (Mrs. Nitta): She is the cold-hearted head of the okiya house that Sayuri stays at. She is a stern business woman who puts money above any emotional connections.

Nobu: He is a business partner of the Chairman, who also develops a fondness of Sayuri. He has battle scars however including a missing arm due to previous wars. He still becomes one of Sayuri's most loyal customers helping her achieve her rise to success. 

Pumpkin: She is a maid and early friend during Sayuri's first couple years in the okiya. However she later becomes Hatsumomo's apprentice and thus also a rival to Sayuri. She is depicted as somewhat insecure and dimwitted. However she achieves her ultimate revenge by exposing Sayuri's shameful act in front of the Chairman. 

Book Review

Although this book comes across as a biographical account it is actually a historical fiction. The author Arthur Golden however did use exclusive material from an interview he had with a real geisha named Mineko Iwasaki. Golden used many snippets and examples from her life to fully portray the story from a geisha's perspective. I believe this inner perspective into the geisha's struggling life is what makes this book so unique. It truly gives a sympathetic account to a career or lifestyle that might be frowned upon by most. However it also provides great insight into this once thriving industry that truly is a staple of Japan's cultural identity.   

I found this book was actually quite easy to comprehend and follow along with (which was a nice break after reading the lengthy Shogun). The protagonist Sayuri is no doubt someone you want to root for, who has such an unfair childhood to lose her parents and be sold almost into slavery. She has no friends when she begins her life in the okiya, including her cruel housemasters and her enemy Hatsumomo. But she somehow manages to endure all these early hardships to become a success in her own right. Even though she can only be the chairman's mistress, he represents the light in her very grim world. She also achieves her own success free of any confinement when she starts her own teahouse in New York City at the end of the story. This makes for a wonderful rags-to-riches story with a powerful arc that leads to a great happy ending.

What I especially enjoyed about the writing style in this book was the amazing use of metaphors and allegories. For starters the author frequently uses the imagery of water to demonstrate the appealing quality of a geisha. It is noted early on that Sayuri has lots of water in her personality which is a reference to her graceful quality (as opposed to wooden stiff characters). Other poetic metaphors that I really enjoyed was when Sayuri thought of herself as a puddle compared to an ocean when thinking of Hatsumomo as a rival. Or the humorous line during WWII, where the geishas believe that "nothing can be bleaker than the future, except maybe the past". The book is loaded with poetic allegories such as this which further enhance Sayuri's likability as the narrator.

Cultural Study: Geisha

As part of my summer of Japanese Culture, I have segued from feudal samurai studies into the more modern day studies. This of course pertains to the Pacific World War II battles (which I've already written about various times), but also a new interest in geisha culture. This interest has emerged as I've embarked on the famous novel, Memoirs of a Geisha by Arthur Golden. I've seen the 2005 movie before which I really enjoyed but still knew quite little about this unique culture. One could make the case that alongside the samurai, the geisha are one of the most iconic cultural traditions of Japan. 

As I've read the book, which I'll later have a full review on, I've been quite fascinated on all the unique customs and structure of this practice. I'll be honest before I began reading this book, I associated geishas as a form of classy prostitutes. However it's not that at all. Geishas are essentially performing artists, who specialize in dance, music, singing, hosting, and the art of conversation. They wear distinctive robes of intricate patterns, known as kimonos. They wear strong makeup with white face paint known as oshiroi. And they wear a traditional hairstyle known as the nihongami, which has a bun in the back with pins and red ribbons. They are essentially the embodiment of beauty and femininity and for this many people will pay highly just for their presence. 

They go thru years of training and it's almost like a cult society, where their life is dedicated to this artform. Their is a system of structure, discipline, obedience, intensive training, and a hierarchy. Most geisha do not get married or have children yet rather stay involved in the geisha community most their lives. This could be either thru mentoring, training, or starting their own geisha house or business. The headquarters of geisha culture is the Gion district of Kyoto, however it spreads throughout Japan. While they do not have a creed or doctrine they practice a philosophy known as the "willow world", which I'd like to further explore in this study. 

Origins of the Geisha

Quite surprisingly the geisha practice did not officially develop until the 1600s during the Edo Period. Of course there were many forms of female courtesans, dancers, and entertainers prior to this, but the artform did not develop until much later. The practice of "pleasure quarters" known as yukaku became common place and legal throughout the 1500s. The highest ranking courtesans were known as oiran, thus already establishing a hierarchy even within the field of prostitution. The oiran was essentially the predecessor to the geisha, as she was not only very beautiful but also well versed in various in music and performance. The visual aesthetics of these women would lay the groundwork for not only the geisha, but also the popular theatre known as kabuki. 

Another important predecessor to the geisha as we know them today, were actually male performers known as taikomochi. These court performers emerged as far back as the 1300s, known as jesters, storytellers, musicians, dancers, party masters, and even advisors to the feudal lords. The female geisha ultimately adopted this practice from the men, with more feminine aesthetics. By the 1700s this form of female entertainer had been identified not as a prostitute but as an artistic performer for social gatherings. By 1750, the first famous geisha Kikuya emerged from Fukagawa, achieving great success not thru sex, but through her skilled singing and shamisen playing. This geisha practice spread slowly throughout Japan, but most primarily in Kyoto's Gion district cattered to upper class private parties. 

Throughout the 1800s the profession had gotten much more organized and was now backed by government regulations that officially declared it was not a form of prostitution. Their popularity quickly grew at the same time as the kabuki theatre, both became beacons of Japanese fashion and cultural entertainment. By 1920 there were approximately 80,000 geisha practicing throughout Japan and were regarded as the elite trendsetters of high-class social life. However with the outbreak of WWII, this popularity ended drastically, and by 1944 most geisha districts were closed. Following the war, the nation was forever changed and many of these geisha found new lifestyles entirely while some did return to similar forms of entertainment. Stricter laws were passed throughout the 1960s, which made it harder for geisha societies to train children. By 1970 the once popular form of social entertainment had become a pastime. While the geisha practice still exists to this day, there are no more then 1000 geishas in Japan. 

Appearance

The geisha has a very distinctive appearance with the intent to emphasize feminine beauty. There are many features to a geisha's ensemble, beginning with their hairstyle, their makeup, and their wardrobe. The makeup is probably the most iconic, with it's white foundation known as oshiroi. The purpose is to illuminate the face with a contrast of the the red lips, black eye liner, and pink blusher. While this overuse of makeup can appear somewhat clownish, on the right girl it can also provide pure visual aesthetics. It's fair to note that this use of white paint makeup was commonplace throughout Europe and France as a symbol of status during this time.

The hairstyle is another distinctive feature of the geisha's appearance, often wore in a style known as the shimada. Similar to the samurai, it's wore with a topknot bun however it has much more intricacy and accessories to it. The hairstyle is the indicator of the geisha's level, either apprentice or professional. The key feature of this style is the red ribbon the is placed at the middle intersection of the back bun. To accompany these red ribbons are long dangling hair-pins or flowers. Once a geisha becomes a professional or more established she can wear a wig, so as not to have to go thru the elaborate styling each day. 

The kimono is their fashion statement, a colorful ensemble of intricate designs and patterns. This is a dress like robe, with long arms and trailing skirts which give off an elegant visual as if they are floating. The robe is held together by a sash known as the obi. The red collar symbolizes apprentice while the white collar symbolizes professional. Another key feature of the geisha's wardrobe are her platform sandals known as okobo. These are a different style of high heels, that lift the geisha from the floor, with a softer step. Geisha take great pride in their embroidered kimonos, which come in all different fabrics, from cotton, linen, polyester, and silk. The hikizuri is considered the most formal of kimono made of fine silk. 

Training Structure

The training process of the geisha begins at a very young age where the girl is likely recruited because of her prosperous beauty. In the early days many a geisha would have begun their training at the age of 6. The young geisha normally moved into houses known as okiya where they would learn from an adopted mother. Most of these young girls came from poor, rural families that simply could not afford the child and were thus sent to serve for their living. The mother of the okiya would raise, feed, clothe, and train the young girl with the intent that she would pay back her debts as a geisha escort. For the first few years of the young girls residency in the okiya, she was mostly a maid and an observer of the geisha customs. 

The proper training stage for a young geisha, known as the shikomi, begins when they start attending classes paid for by the mother of the okiya. A future geisha must spend many hours of intensive training to learn the arts they are expected to have. These arts consist of music classes, singing, and learning how to play the shamisen, three-stringed instrument, the taiko drum, and the fue flute. Dance is also a very important geisha art where the traditional dance of kyomai is best known for it's slow, graceful, and provoking movement. The mastery of tea ceremony, calligraphy, and especially conversation are also essential elements that separate a good geisha from a great geisha. 

The next phase is their apprenticeship where this maiko (apprentice) must follow an established geisha, referred to as their older sister. Here she continues to quietly learn from observation attending parties and other social functions with professional geisha. Normally a maiko is not allowed at a teahouse or an event without their sister geisha. The ceremonial promotion from maiko to geisha is sometimes practiced when a bidder buys their virginity, a tradition known as mizuage (raising the waters). When a maiko graduates to become a geisha (usually at the age of 20 or 21), their collar changes from red to white in a ceremony known as the erikae. She can be fully independent of their okiya mother, once all debts have been paid. She will continue to live in he same okiya for most of her life as she conducts her business as she chooses, often taking on her own apprentices at a fee. A geisha will often have a patron throughout most of her life, known as a danna. 

Traditional Arts

What makes a geisha different then a female escort or prostitute is her intellectual skill in the arts. This incorporates the traditional aspects of Japanese culture. The first and most important skill a geisha has is the art of conversation and hosting. While it may seem trivial, there is no doubt a skill in keeping a conversation lively, humorous, and sincere all at once. Since the geisha are mostly invited to social gatherings they are expected to be the life of the party, by not only showing obedience but also clever engagement with their clients. They are expected to not just be silent observers but to be knowledgably on current affairs, history, the arts, poetry, or literature. This quality brings life to their charming appeal.   

The geisha is also expected to perform for her customers thru her traditional arts of dance and music. The dance known as the nihon buyo is often an expressive one with minimal yet precise movement that displays total elegance. The geisha is also a skilled musician well versed in vocals as well as playing the shamisen, taiko, and fue instruments. They are expected to be masters of the tea ceremony, where they truly display their grace, precision, discipline, and acute awareness. They are also well versed in the Japanese traditions of calligraphy and flower arrangement. 

The Willow World

Although the geisha don't have an official creed or doctrine they follow a way of life known as the karyukai (also known as the willow world). These courtesans are considered like beautiful flowers, who have their blossoming periods yet will also eventually wither. They are also considered like willow trees, who can adapt to any situation with great resilience. They are flexible and appeasing to their clients, but ultimately their roots are stable and grow stronger with age. While it may seem a grim life for most, the geisha take solace in this notion that they are providing an escape for most men, while maintaining their own stability. 

The geisha world is one that appeases others and bends to their desires while still maintaining their foundation. Their world takes place in the geisha districts, a life of servitude as a young child to become like an object of beauty. They don't normally marry or have their own children, and they certainly don't travel or roam freely like a bird. Instead they remain put in this willow world like a stable tree that offers it's leaves and branches to men. These geisha abide by this unofficial code thru their hierarchy and business structure of okiya houses, teahouses, and registry offices. So while most might see Gion or the other red light districts as a form of entertainment and pleasure, from the geisha's perspective this is one of servitude but also artistic fulfillment.