Historical Study: Mehmed's Greatest Rivals

While there can be no question of Mehmed’s greatness, those who resisted him can also be considered as great heroes of their own respected nations. These leaders were defiant in the face of conquest such as the great John Huynadi (Hungary), Vlad the Impaler (Romania), Skanderberg (Albania), Mathius Cornivus (Hungary), and Stephen the Great (Moldovia). Even Constanine XI (Byzantine Empire) who although fell, achieved legendary status for his defiant resistance against the Ottoman siege of Constantinople. His final stand was truly a great moment of death and glory (like something right out of the movies). In this section I’d like to highlight these famous leaders who were able to repel Mehmed’s campaigns of conquest. This group of iconic rivals is what makes the 1450s-1460s such an intriguing period in world history.

John Hunyadi- (Kingdom of Hungary)- 1456

During his campaign against Serbia, Mehmed II sought to strike at his greatest threat in Eastern Europe, the Kingdom of Hungary. The fortress of Belgrade in central Serbia, was considered the gateway into Hungary and of great strategic importance for Mehmed. It was also a vital location to control access to the Danube River in the Balkans. The Kingdom of Hungary found itself in a vulnerable position at this time due to instability under the youthful king Ladislaus V. Mehmed was aware of those and saw it as the perfect opportunity to press his advantage and drive straight for Belgrade.

The de-facto leader of the kingdom at that time was the military statesman John Huyandi. He was no stranger to war with the Ottomans, and had served in various battles prior to this one. He resisted Ottoman advances in Serbia at the Battle of Semendria (1439), led a victorious campaign in Romania during the Battle of the Iron Gate (1442), achieved another victory at the Battle of Nish (1443), and barely escaped at the Battle of Varna (1444), and the Second Battle of Kosovo (1448). By 1446 he became a governor for his valiant military leadership to help oversee Hungarian political affairs. The looming threat was always the Ottoman Empire however, and when Mehmed began his Serbian campaign in 1454, John Hunyadi was tasked with the defenses of the kingdom.

By July of 1456 Mehmed arrived with a massive army of 80,000 soldiers, including janissaries and heavy artillery. The walled city of Belgrade had approximately 35,000 Hungarian soldiers led by John Hunyadi, as well as some Christian crusader factions. The scale was similar to Constantinople, and Mehmed began with a heavy bombardment of the walls as well as a naval blockade of the Danube River. Hunyadi was able to break the blockade with a daring river assault. After several weeks of bombardment there were notable gaps and breaks in the wall, however the rubble was still impassable.

On July 21-22nd Mehmed personally led the final assault on the walls, but the charge was repelled by Hunyadis’ force. In turn Hunyadi led a bold counterattack outside his walls by attacking the Ottoman trenches and artillery. Mehmed was wounded during this fight, which ultimately caused him to retreat and abandon the siege of Belgrade. It was his first major defeat and marked a major moral boost for the Christian states thanks to the brave leadership of Hunyadi. In a cruel twist of fate however, despite this glorious victory for Huynadi he died several months later due to a plague. His son Matthias Corvinus later became king of Hungary in 1458 and reigned for 32 years.

Vlad the Impaler (Wallachia)- 1456-1462

Now we come to the crux of the era pertaining to one of histories most villainous figures, Vlad the Impaler. Mehmed’s feud with Vlad the Impaler is probably the 2nd most famous chapter of Mehmed’s intriguing life, after the Fall of Constantinople. I intend to later make a deeper dive on Vlad the Impaler so won’t go into too much detail here. However I do want to highlight the vital role Vlad played in resisting Ottoman conquest of the Romanian region of Transylvania. While there can be no question that Vlad’s methods were sinister, he was ultimately serving a greater purpose in defending his territory against invaders.

By 1417 Wallachia became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire and was expected to pay tribute. Wallachia’s allegiance frequently went back-and-forth from the Ottomans to the Hungarians, most notably by Vlad’s father, Vlad II. However in 1447 Hungarian leader, John Hunyadi grew tired of Vlad II’s instability, invaded Wallachia, and assassinated Vlad II. His son Vlad III fled to the Ottoman Empire and thus found favor with them in the early part of his life. With support of the Ottomans, Vlad III was able to briefly return to power in 1448, however he was quickly ousted again by the Hungarians that same year. After Hunyadi’s death in 1456, Vlad III regained power in Wallachia to serve as Voivode (like a warlord).

During the early portion of Vlad III’s reign he continued to pay tribute to Mehmed, as a means to buy time and consolidate his power. Once he felt strong enough, in 1461 he suddenly turned on the Ottoman Empire in the ultimate act of defiance. Vlad took this a step further by waging a military campaign on Ottoman territory in Bulgaria. It was here that he conducted terrible massacres, torture, scorched-earth tactics, and his infamous impalements as a strong message to Mehmed. In 1462, Mehmed launched a campaign into Romania to squash this resistance. However in response Vlad led a bold night attack on Mehmed’s encampment in Targoviste, seeking to assassinate the Ottoman sultan. Mehmed was able to escape and left Wallachia due to sheer shock from the impalements, but also a lack of resources from Vlad’s scorched earth tactics.

Although Vlad was successful in repelling Mehmed’s campaign, his army suffered heavy losses and much of his territorial resources were now destroyed by his own sabotage. He quickly lost popularity within Wallachia and turned to Hungary for support. However Matthias Corvinus had grown tired of Vlad’s cruelty and had him arrested. Vlad was imprisoned in Hungary for 12 years while his brother Radu the handsome took over as the new leader of Wallachia. In 1475 Vlad was finally released with the support of Stephen the Great of Moldovia to join him on a campaign against the Ottomans. Vlad once again briefly became leader of Wallachia but died shortly after in battle against the Ottomans. His head was later sent to Mehmed as proof of his death.

Skanderberg (Albania) 1455-1478

After the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the Ottomans began their influence over the region of Albania. Once the stronghold of Kruje was captured in 1415, the Ottoman Empire essentially annexed this territory and established administrative districts. Around this time the young noble Gjergj Kastrioti was sent to the Ottoman Court to learn their customs as a diplomatic gesture. Kastrioti received military training and quickly climbed the Ottoman ranks to be known as “Skanderberg”. He even led various military campaigns on the side of the Ottomans such their campaigns into Anatolia, the Balkans, and against the Hungarians. In 1443 he found himself on the losing side against the Hungarians under John Hunyadi at the Battle of Nis. This Christian victory demonstrated the vulnerability of the Ottoman Empire. It was the perfect time for Skanderberg to defect and return to his homeland of Albania. He had made up his mind at this point to turn on the Ottomans just as Vlad the Impaler had done.

Within days of his return to Albania, Skanderberg seized the Ottoman-controlled fortress of Kruje to reclaim it as his own. He then called upon other regional “Albanian” nobles to unite and establish the Legion of Lezhe in 1444. Skanderberg was chosen as their leader, to defend the region from Ottoman conquest. Shortly after Skanderberg began a guerilla campaign against Ottoman positions achieving many victories from 1444-1451. He even defeated the Venetians over a territorial dispute in 1447-1448. Skanderberg’s fame quickly spread throughout the Balkan region, as they considered him a Christian hero. This allowed him to gain support from the wealthy merchant republics of Naples and later Venice.

During Skanderberg’s early rise to power in Albania, Mehmed II was preoccupied with his military campaigns in Turkey. After his monumental victory at Constantinople in 1453, he turned his full attention towards the Balkan region. By 1455 as Mehmed launched his Serbian campaign he also began attacks on Skanderberg in Albania. However Skanderberg was able to resist the attacks thanks to solid fortifications and ambush tactics. In 1460 Skanderberg stepped away from leading the Albanian defenses to support his ally in Naples. During this Italian Expedition he came to the aid of Alfonso of Aragon who was facing political insurgency. After a year in Italy, Skanderberg returned to Albania to continue his military command. As the Ottoman-Venetian war broke out in 1463 he sided with the Venetians since they both shared a common enemy.

In 1466, Mehmed II personally led a major offensive into Albania to confront Skanderberg. He built a fortification in the Albanian city of Elabsan to organize his attack (just as he did with the Roumeli Hissar Fortress in Constantinople). Mehmed marched with a powerful army of 100,000 soldiers seeking to crush Skanderberg’s resistance and secure the Adriatic seacoast. However Skanderberg once again was resilient in the face of heavy opposition. He continued to use his guerilla tactics, fortification defense, scorched-earth tactics, and frequent retreats. Thus Mehmed could never deliver a crushing blow to Skanderberg’s forces. In 1467 Skanderberg led a heroic counterattack against the invading Ottoman army near Elbasan inflicting heavy casualties. He however suffered a similar fate as John Hunyadi and died a year later in 1468 due to fever. Mehmed eventually conquered Albania in 1478, but was never able to do it while Skanderberg was in power. It is this reason that he is considered to this day as the national hero of Albania.

St. Stephen the Great (Moldavia)1473-1481

In 1451 the King of Moldovia Bodgan II was brutally murdered by his brother Peter III of Aaron in a conspiracy to take the throne. Bodgan’s son and rightful heir Stephen fled into Hungary, and eventually found refuge with his cousin Vlad the Impaler in Wallachia. In 1456 under the leadership of Peter Aaron, Moldovia became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire. A year later Stephen returned to his home nation with the support of Vlad to reclaim his rightful throne. A civil war ensued where Stephen was able to defeat Peter (with the support of the Wallachian army) at the Battle of Doljesti and the Battle of Orbic. Stephen quickly purged his dissidents, while Peter Aaron fled into exile in Hungary.

Once Stephen was able to consolidate his power he began a military campaign with Ottoman support against the Kingdom of Poland (1460-1463) and then the Hungarian Kingdom (1462-1467). He failed to capture the seaport of Chilia (modern day Ukraine) however was able to resist invasions from the Polish and Hungarians. He decisively defeated Matthius Corvinus at the Battle of Baia (1467) which gave him some autonomy and great reputation as a military leader. Peter Aaron mounted an offensive in 1470 with Hungarian support but he was soundly defeated and executed (thus completing Stephen’s vengeance over the man who murdered his father).

Stephen continued to strengthen his position for some time in Moldovia, before he decided to turn on the Ottoman Empire (just as Vlad and Skanderberg had done). This was mostly due to increased Ottoman pressure and higher tribute payments. Once Stephen stopped paying tribute to Mehmed, he quickly built up his defenses anticipating a military response. Mehmed organized his military response by appointing Hadim Suleiman Pasha to lead an army of 60,000 to conquer Moldovia. Stephen however used scorch-earth tactics to disrupt the Ottoman advance. Both military faces finally came head on at the Battle of Vaslui in 1475. Stephen led an army of 30,000 thru heavy fog and ambush attacks to achieve one of his greatest victories. Pasha was forced to retreat, and Mehmed was shocked by this Moldavian victory. Stephen was declared Athleta Christi by Pope Sixtus IV “The Champion of the Church”.