Historical Study: United States Influence on Latin America

I now divert back to my Latin American appreciation phase in preparation for our family trip to Medellin, Colombia. At the beginning of the summer I made deep dives into Cuba and Mexico and last fall made a deep dive into the Dominican Republic. I have already written about Colombian Culture, but intend to make a deeper historical dive concerning the Medellin Cartel in a separate post. In this blog I want to better understand the American influence (and intervention) of all Latin American countries. So in essence this will be a study of modern Latin American history (not so much regarding their early independence). 

It's no question that the United States has been involved in the affairs of Latin America since these nations broke free from Spain in the early 1800s. Obviously it's a geographical concern for safety and security, but also quite the imperialistic grab to maintain global supremacy. The United States has been involved with nearly every Latin American country in various efforts to sway leftist politics and amass new wealth. They have downright intervened militarily in several countries such as Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Cuba, Bolivia to name a few. I'd like to just run down the list and get a brief understanding of these nation's political history and their relations with the United States. 

Mexico

Starting with America's closest southern neighbor, Mexico has always been at odds with the United States since it's independence in 1821 (see Mexican History). Quite often the disputes have been over territory and the border. The United States actually swallowed up much of Mexico's territory after various disputes in Texas. The Mexican-American War of 1846-1848 settled this dispute which granted the United States the new territory of Texas, California, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and Arizona. A new line was established along the Rio Grande River. This essentially divided the United States from Latin America. 

Throughout the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1920 the United States first supported the regime then later the rebels. Their role was not very involved despite defending their territories from what they considered bandit raids led by Pancho Villa. They briefly occupied Veracruz in 1914 after several Americans were detained by Mexican rebels. Following the Mexican Revolution, the relations have stayed peaceful. However the border crisis of illegal immigration has become a political hot topic for the past twenty years. Surpisingly however the majority of immigrants aren't Mexians, but rather people from poorer nations such as Venezuela, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador. 

Cuba

Probably one of the most well known examples of American influence and intervention in Latin America of which I have recently studied, see Cuban History. Cuba actually did not achieve independence until 1902, much thanks to the assistance of the United States during the Spanish-American War of 1898. From that point on Cuba had no longer become a Spanish puppet state but rather an American puppet state. For nearly 50 years it served as an American hotspot for tropical tourism, hotels, and casinos, most notably under General Batista during the 1950s. From 1953-1959 a leftist uprising spread throughout Cuba led by Fidel Castro to successfully overthrow Batista and break free from American influence.

Once Cuba had won it's revolution, political tension with America reached an all time high much due to Cuba's alliance with the Soviet Union. In 1961 the CIA led a failed invasion of Cuban exiles known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion. That same year Cuba became the staging ground of a nuclear standoff with the Soviet Union, known as the Cuban Missile Crisis. Despite many other sabotage and assassination attempts Castro maintained a solid grip of his communist regime for nearly 50 years. Since his death in 2008 political restrictions have loosened and the doors for American tourism have once again been opened.     

Dominican Republic

Moving further into the Caribbean, this island that was once a hot spot for Spanish explorers and later became a hot spot for American interest. We visited the island about a year ago and I made a deep dive into their history, see (History of Dominican Republic). The Dominican Republic achieved it's independence from Spain in 1844 however struggled over territory with Haiti for many years to come. The United States first diverted it's attention to Dominican Republic during both World Wars and occupied the island so that their enemy could not use it as a naval base. 

 From 1934-1961 Dominican president Rafael Trujillo had established a powerful right-wing dictatorship which concerned America. The CIA took part in a plot to assassinate the president with intentions to transform the island back into a democratic state. Following his assassination the country broke out into Civil War and the United States once again sent troops to quell the conflict. The American interests were strongly against the Socialist leader Juan Bosch and helped bring a swift end to their rebellion.   

Guatemala

Back into Central America, the once thriving capital of the Mayans, Guatemala gained independence from Spain in 1821. By the early 1900s the nation had become a booming resource for America thru it's United Fruit Company. This dispossessed much land from the ingenious Mayan people in favor to the wealthy which led to the Guatemala Revolution of 1944-1954. By 1951 a new progressive leader was elected, Jacobo Arbenz who worked to restore more rights and land for the Mayans and lower working classes. In response to these new laws that threatened their business, the United States supported a civil war to overthrow Arbenz. The Civil War waged on for many years from 1960-1996, during of which there were terrible massacres and genocides of the Mayan people. By 1996 many of the leftists guerilla organizations transformed into political parties. 

El Salvador

The small Central American nation of El Salvador won it's independence from Spain in 1821. Throughout the 19th and early 20th century the nation found it's economy to thrive around the production of indigo. This ushered in an era of wealthy landowners and oligarchs that controlled the nation for nearly a hundred years. By 1931 a military dictatorship came to power on par with that of the DR. The Fascist leader, Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez ruled from 1935 to 1944 and committed many massacres of the working class peasants. Martinez resigned in 1944 due to a coup attempt and was later killed in 1966 while in exile. He was followed by various other military dictators throughout the 1960s-1970s, with not as much control.  

In 1979 a coup d'etat occurred to restore a totalitarian state, with the support of the United States. Due to this the Salvadorian Civil War broke out waged by a coalition of Leftist Guerilla armies supported by Cuba and the Soviet Union. The assassination of the popular outspoken bishop Oscar Romero, caused further unrest among the working class peasants. President Jose Napoleon Duarte governed El Salvador with the support of America, and committed many massacres and crimes against humanity. The conflict waged on for nearly 12 years and resulted in over 75,000 deaths.    

Honduras

On par with many other nations throughout Central America, Honduras also achieved it's independence in 1821. Throughout it's establishment the nation of Honduras had various disputes with it's neighboring nations of El Salvador and Guatemala in hopes to establish a united Central American state. Of all the Central American states Honduras sought for unity more than any others. By the 1890s the United States began to show economic interest in the territory, primarily in the market of plantations and the banana industry. The Standard Fruit Company was established in 1924 and became one of the largest producing fruit companies next to the United Fruit Company. Throughout the Banana Wars, the United States often had to intervene militarily to protect it's tropical market.     

Nicaragua

The nation of Nicaragua (which I visited in 2009), also achieved it's independence in 1821. Throughout the 1840s-1850s the country underwent civil war between liberals and conservatives. In 1855 the nation was conquered by an American mercenary named William Walker who ruled the country until he was ousted during the Filibuster War in 1857. At the onset of the 19th century the United States began to intervene more frequently in the affairs of Nicaragua. The US military occupied various parts of Nicaragua from 1912-1933 and even considered building it's canal there, before deciding on Panama. 

During the Nicaraguan Civil War of 1926-1927 the United States supported the conservative government against the liberal rebels. Anastasio Somoza Garcia became president and his family established a dictatorship for the next 50 years with the backing of the United States. In 1979 a leftist uprising occurred led by Daniel Ortega and his socialist party known as the Sandinista National Liberation Front. The Nicaraguan Revolution waged for nearly 30 years as yet another proxy battle between the USA and the Soviet Union. This time however the leftist army was able to prevail over the conservative Contras and overthrew the Somoza government. To this day Nicaragua remains a socialist state and I definitely noticed the impoverished state of that nation when I visited.       

Costa Rica

Probably one of the most peaceful nations in the Central American region when it comes to any America dispute or influence. I visited this nation back in 2009 for 3 months and found it to be such a neutral state when it came to political affairs. The nation also achieved it's independence in 1821 and coffee quickly became one of it's major economic exports. In 1855 Costa Rica sided with Nicaragua during the Filibuster War to oust the radically mercenary William Walker who sought to restore slavery. By 1869 they had established a democracy and rarely underwent much civil disputes or entanglements with America. They did however experience a brief civil war in 1948 when Jose Figueres Ferrer overthrew the leftist government, with the support of the United States.  

Panama

This nation has been a vital territory of American influence and occupation up until the 1980s. My dad was actually stationed there in the army for some time when he met my mom in Venezuela. The nation achieved it's independence in 1819 as part of Simon Bolivar's Gran Colombia. Quite interesting that Panama was first associated to South America, before it became a part of Central America. By 1830 Panama briefly broke free from the Republic of Colombia then once again reunited in 1831 to establish the Republic of New Granada. This was essentially the territory of Panama and Colombia from 1831-1858. For most the 19th century Panama was essentially in the shadow of Colombia. 

However in the 20th century after the Spanish-American War, the United States acquired several new territories in Latin America. President Theodore Roosevelt pushed for the construction of a canal in the narrowest strip of land in Central America to expedite sea trade routes. This project led to many political and financial disputes with Colombia, however with the backing of America, Panama was able to become it's own independent nation in 1903. From this point on Panama had become an American puppet state, especially after the completion of the canal in 1914. 

The nation was controlled by American-supported oligarchs throughout most of it's modern era. However by the 1980s the military general Manuel Noriega was able to rise to power and quickly caused new tensions with the United States. At first Noriega worked as an operative of the CIA throughout the 1970s. He provided America information on Cuba and the Sandistas in support of the right-wing Contras. However this relationship came to an abrupt end when Noriega rose to power in Panama thru drug-trafficking with Colombia. In 1989 the United States invaded Panama to oust Noriega whom was declared a criminal and against American business interests.           

Colombia

Now we enter South America, thru the gates of Colombia (my mother's home country). I've dabbled into some Colombian history in the past (see Colombian Culture and Spanish Wars of Independence) but am now more fascinated with it's modern history. Colombia became the center of Simon Bolivar's war of independence against Spain. In 1819 Colombia had achieved it's independence and established the territory known as Gran Colombia consisting of Panama and Venezuela. It later evolved into the Republic of New Granada and the Republic of Colombia. Colombia first came to odds with the United States over the ownership and finances related to the Panama Canal.     

Throughout most of the early 1900s Colombia has been torn by civil war between liberal and conservative coalitions. The Thousand Days War (1899-1902) and La Violencia of 1948-1958. Following this Civil War, Colombia instituted a joint government of Liberals and Conservatives known as the National Front Regime. Despite this collaboration however resistance continued on both ends, notably from leftist guerilla factions such as M-19 and the FARC. Surprisingly however despite all this civil conflict, the United States really did not intervene in Colombian affairs until the rise of the drug lord Pablo Escobar. 

By the late 1970s drug trafficking had emerged as a new booming market for Colombia giving these illegal operations new sway on political affairs. The Medellin Cartel of Pablo Escobar had established the largest global network of cocaine distribution in the world. The amount of wealth being poured into this operation obviously concerned the United States, and thus Ronald Reagan declared a new "War on Drugs" in 1982. Throughout the 1980s Escobar was the most powerful man in Colombia who promoted many economic projects but also oversaw a very bloody and violent operation. During this time the United States put their CIA, FBI, and DEA at work to infiltrate and sabotage this market from within. By 1992 Escobar was captured, arrested and later killed by the Colombian police (much thanks to the intel provided by America).   

Venezuela

My mother's home nation where she grew up, and I myself have visited twice throughout my lifetime. The nation was actually the birth place of the great liberator, Simon Bolivar and thus became the starting grounds for his war of Independence. Venezuela was the first South American nation to achieve it's independence in 1811, although the conflict would wage on until 1823. By 1830 Venezuela became it's own nation free from Gran Colombia. From that point on the nation became a military state that underwent various waves of civil wars. 

The Federal War of 1859-1863 was another bloody conflict between liberals and conservatives over the distribution of land, wealth, and governing administration. After 5 years of war that resulted in the death of approximately 100,000 Venezuela, a new treaty was declared by both sides to establish a new democratic form of government. Nonetheless Venezuela came at odds with Europe over foreign debts and a naval blockade surrounded Venezula from 1902-1903 until the United States interceded. After this the military general Juan Vicente Gomez ruled the nation for nearly 30 years. Although he was considered a typical dictator he also helped establish an infrastructure and economy within Venezuela. Also at this time Venezuela discovered it's oil deposits which ushered in a new economic boom. 

Venezuela underwent various military dictators until 1958 when a stronger democratic constitution was adapted. In the 1960s it established the global oil network of OPEC creating an alliance with other major oil producers such as Russia, Saudi Arabia, and Iran. Despite this booming wealth from it's oil market, the United States hardly intervened much in Venezuela affairs but were quite concerned by the Bolivarian Revolution of 1999. The socialist general Hugo Chavez was elected president in 1998 and for nearly 15 years transformed the nation into a socialist state. This also ushered in a wave of leftist governments throughout Latin America known as the Pink Tide.

The effects of Hugo Chavez's socialist revolution however have taken a sour turn from about 2010 till present leading to inflation, starvation, sickness, and total crisis. In the 2019 presidential election, the United States took it's boldest act yet against Venezuela by threating military intervention if the socialist leader Nicolas Maduro did not stop down. Juan Guaido became the first elected opponent of the Bolivarian Revolution in over twenty years. However despite this American regime change it only lasted four years, and in the 2024 elections Maduro returned to office and thus the crisis continues worse the never in Venezuela.   

    

Ecuador

Ecuador began it's fight for independence in the Quito Revolution (1809-1812) nearly ten years before they joined Simon Bolivar's campaign. It was not until 1822 that they achieved independence from Spain. They then became a member of Gran Colombia from 1822-1830 until becoming their own nation in 1830. Similar to most of Latin America during the 19th century they also underwent civil war between liberals and conservatives as well as territorial disputes with Peru. However all-in-all the conflicts were not quite as bloody and the nation has really never had much influence or intervention from the United States. Since the 1990s however the country has experienced similar economic problems as Venezuela.       

Peru

Known as the home of the Incas, Peru began it's war of independence in 1809 and were finally liberated with the help of Jose de San Martin in 1821 (yet the fighting continued until 1826). The Peruvian Republic was thus established in 1821 (which included Bolivia) but was separate from it's northern neighbor of Gran Colombia (however Peru was involved in military disputes with Colombia, Bolivia, and Ecuador throughout the 1830s. This eventually snowballed into a greater civil conflict known as the War of the Confederation from 1836-1839. Following this conflict Peru and Bolivia became separate states however military disputes continued frequently for Peru such as war with Ecuador (1857), war with Spain (1865), and war with Chile (1879-1883). In the 20th century minor civil conflicts continued for Peru, but never serious enough to get the attention of the United States. 

Bolivia

Bolivia became recognized as an independent state in 1825 named after their heroic liberator Simon Bolivar. It however spent most of the 19th century at war with it's neighboring countries of Peru and Chile, and was later merged with Peru from 1836-1839. In the War of the Pacific in 1879-1883 Bolivia and Peru fought and loss against Chile. As a result of this Bolivia lost access to the Pacific Ocean and became a landlocked country. It continued territorial disputes into the 20th century which led to an eastern conflict with Paraguay in the Chaco War from 1932-1935 (which once again lost Bolivia territory). 

After many years of poverty, Bolivia finally experienced a social upheaval leading to their peaceful National Revolution in 1952. Supported by a leftist/communist push a new constitution was passed that granted more rights and land to the lower classes over the ruling wealthy elite. Although the new state was considered closer to communism, the United States supported this transition and did not intervene (most likely because they did not see Bolivia as a threat). However in 1964 it is believed they did support a coup d'état that established a more conservative military state. In response to this Ernesto Che Guevara left Cuba to lead a guerilla campaign in the mountains of Bolivia. However with the support of the American CIA, Guevara was captured and executed. The US later supported a second conservative coup in 1971 and gave military aid to General Hugo Banzer.  

Chile

The Chilean War of Independence went on from 1812-1827 and was not led by Simon Bolivar but rather the great Argentine leader Jose de San Martin. Once established as a republic the nation underwent a conservative era for nearly 30 years notably under the leadership of General Joaquin Prieto. From 1861-1891 the country then turned to 30 years of liberal leadership during which it achieved victory over Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific to acquire more territory along the western Pacific coastline. In 1891 a brief civil war broke out in Chile, which helped establish a new parliamentary democratic system.     

In 1970 however Chile underwent a major political shift when the socialist leader Salvador Allende was elected president. This suddenly became a major concern of America, who feared there would be significantly land reform that would seize their mines and business operations. The US began to infiltrate and sabotage Allende's administration, who in response turned to the Soviet Union for support. By 1973 with the support of Richard Nixon and the CIA, the military general Augusto Pinochet led a successful coup d'etat which overthrew Allende. Pinochet established a military state (with the support of the United States) for nearly 20 years (and persecuted many political opponents during this time).      

Argentina

During the Spanish Wars of Independence the Argentine liberator Jose de San Martin helped declare independence in 1816 and achieve victory by 1818. An Argentine Confederation was formed by 1830 however was plagued by various civil wars, territory disputes, and social upheavals. Under the leadership of Juan Manuel de Rosa, he waged war against the indigenous tribes, fought against the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, and later joined the Uruguayan Civil War of 1839-1851. This eventually resulted in a naval blockade by France and England in 1845. By 1862 the country finally was unified under the liberal liberal Bartolome Mitre.  However by the 1880s Argentina shifted to a more conservative state as it underwent major industrialization.    

Throughout the 1920s Argentina became a breeding ground for radical leftist, communist, and even anarchist movements. President Hipolito Yrigoyen a member of the Radical Civic Union became president twice during this period and labeled himself as the father of the poor. However by 1930 at the onset of the Great Depression, a military coup forced Yrigoyen from power in what would later lead to the Infamous Decade. In the midst of economic depression a new conservative regime took hold and persecuted many leftist organizations and anarchists. The Infamous Decade came to an abrupt end with the June Revolution of 1943 that brought an end to the military dictatorship.

The popular leader Juan Peron became president in 1946 ushering in a new era of centrist/socialist ideals known as Peronism. His wife Eva "Evita" was also very popular with the people deemed as the Spiritual Leader of the Nation. She fought for labor and women rights and even considered a run for political office herself, until she suddenly got sick from cancer and died. By 1955 the Peron leadership was then overthrown during the bloody Revolucion Libertadora. A conservative military dictatorship once again came to power under President Eduardo Lonardi and Pedro Aramburu. Liberals briefly regained power, but were overthrown a second time during the 1966 Argentine Revolution. 

Surprisingly the United States did not intervene in Argentina until the 1976 election. By the 1970s the left parties had begun to regain strength and Peronism had returned to the forefront. With the support of Cuba and Chile (under Allende's presidency), Juan Peron won his 2nd term as president in 1973. Juan died however a year into his presidency and his wife Isabel assumed the office to become one of the first female heads of state. Despite this however Isabel was inexperienced in politics and the nation quickly fell into chaos which led to the 1976 military coup by General Jorge Rafael Videla (supported by the United States).      

From this point on Argentina underwent a National Reorganization Process to rid the streets of leftist radical organizations. This campaign was heavily supported by Gerald Ford's administration and led to a rather violent ten year period referred to as the Dirty War. Throughout the late 1970s to early 1980s Argentina once again became a military state. In 1981 President Leopoldo Galtieri tried to seize the Falkland Islands from England but failed. By 1983 president Raul Alfonsin helped establish a democratic government that still operates today.  

Uruguay

What was once known as the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata consisted of Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil. This region declared independence in the May Revolution of 1810 in Buenos Aires. In 1828 led by the Thirty Three Orientals, Uruguay split from Brazil and Argentina to establish it's own independent nation. However just like every newly established nation it did not take long for civil war to break out between liberals and conservatives. The Uruguay Civil War waged on from 1839-1851 and was won by the liberal party known as the Colorados. However after ten years the conservative faction known as the Blancos regained power of the nation. A second civil war broke out in 1864 in which Brazil and Argentina came to the aid of the liberal Colorado party. Uruguay then joined Brazil and Argentina in the war against Paraguay from 1864-1870.

Throughout the 1870s-1890s Uruguay turned to a militarized state whilst modernizing their nation in the midst of the industrial revolution. During this time waves of European immigrants poured into Uruguay and it's capital of Montevideo became a melting pot of culture. Throughout the 20th century Uruguay has undergone various dictatorships yet all of which were brief and not as tyrannically as some of their neighboring nations. For the most part Uruguay has maintained a peaceful and neutral stance in global affairs and for this the United States has never intervened.        

Paraguay

Paraguay was originally a territory of Argentina during the Spanish wars of independence however broke away from Spain and Argentina in 1811 to declare it's independence. Under the leadership of Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia a military dictatorship was established to create a nationalist state until 1840. His leadership was followed by Francisco Solando Lopez who dragged the nation into a territorial dispute against Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay during the Paraguyan War of 1864-1870. As a result Paraguay lost 40% of it's land and it was one of the most bloody conflicts in South American history costing up to 500,000 deaths. Paraguay did win back some land in the Chaco War of 1932-1935 against Bolivia. From 1954 to 1989 General Alfredo Stroessner established a conservative military dictatorship in a period known as El Stronato. He eventually lost power and to this day Paraguay is a peaceful democracy in which the United States has never intervened.        

Brazil

Latin America took advantage of the Napoleonic Wars to begin their campaigns of independence throughout the early 1800s. During this dispute the Portuguese royal family fled to their colony of Brazil but were later exiled by the ensuing war of independence from 1822-1825. Under the leadership of their liberator Pedro of Braganza, Brazil established an Empire (one of the few American nations to do so aside from Mexico and Haiti). This vast plot of land took up nearly 50% of South America and produced half the world's coffee. The nation also made good fortune in the production of rubber. Pedro II reigned over the empire for 58 years until he was overthrown by a political faction of constitutionalists. This brought an end to the Brazilian Empire replaced by the First Brazilian Republic in 1889 also known as the Old Republic.      

At the start of the 20th century, Brazil was the most wealthy South American nation ahead of Argentina and Chile. The nation was ruled by a network of wealthy oligarchs of coffee plantations who controlled the government thru it's financial influence known as Coronelism. Throughout the 1930s-1940s there were various coup attempts by leftist Communist factions and right factions known as the Brazilian Integralism party. In 1964 the United States got involved in Brazilian affairs by overthrowing Joao Goulart and replacing him with a conservative military dictatorship. Known as Operation Brother Sam, this was considered the most significant grabs of Latin America during the Cold War. This dictatorship under American influence lasted for 20 years committing strict censorship and persecutions. By 1985 the dictatorship folded and was replaced by the present day democratic government.   

Artistic Study: Vincent Van Gogh

I remember I first came to understand the artwork of Vincent van Gogh while I was in college. It was my roommate P-Rod who put a poster of the famous painting Cafe Terrace at Night in our living room. I wasn't too familiar with art at that time, but I thought the image had such a soothing appeal to it. It had a blurry mysterious quality to it, amidst a starry night, with people sitting outside a restaurant, while others walked in the cobblestone streets. I just loved this blurry style that I later came to understand as impressionism. I then became familiar with van Gogh's other famous works such as the iconic Starry Night, and my all time favorite Starry Night over the Rhone (I had this painting as a desktop wallpaper for a good portion of my junior year in college).

When I look at his paintings I see such a surreal illusionary image that is almost like a dream. It's like being in an altered state or subconscious where you see something, but it's not entirely clear what you see. In using the art form of impressionism (or post-impressionism) Van Gogh applies a brush stroke technique that creates a broken image with gaps in it. While it seems messy and incomplete it enhances the artistic quality with a cryptic style. After all by this point in history, the visual arts had outgrown the simplicity of clear beautiful painting. It had now become a subjective form of interpretation, where a painter could create a beautiful image with a unique technical application of the colors.

As I wrote in my previous study of the evolution of western art, this recent phase was brought on by a trip to the Gallery of Art in Washington DC. Furthermore I just watched the film, At Eternity's Gate (2018), starring William DeFoe as the Dutch artist living in Arles, France. Although the actor DeFoe was much older than van Gogh at the time, I thought the portrayal of his insanity was quite insightful. We've always known that infamous story of van Gogh cutting off his ear, but what was the true purpose behind it? In looking at his many portraits and even many of his paintings, it's clear to see that van Gogh suffered from mental illness. He did not achieve any fame or glory during his lifetime, but I believe it's due to his brief and troubled life that his artwork has now been celebrated as masterful. 

Early Life as a Wanderer

Vincent van Gogh was born on March 30th, 1853 in the small town of Groot-Zuendert, Netherlands. His father was a Christian minister while his mother came from a wealthy family. As a child van Gogh displayed a serious, intelligent, and unhappy personality where he developed an interest in art.. encouraged by his mother, this appreciation for art was clearly omnipresent in the family as Vincent's 3 brothers would also later become art dealers. In 1869 the teenager Vincent found work at an art gallery in the Hague where he began studying and applying the craft. He displayed great skill and was soon collecting some profit on his works. However he later suffered heartbreak and became more isolated and withdrawn. 

In his early 20s he traveled various towns of Holland, England, and Paris working various jobs as a teacher, painting, or at a bookstore. He became very religious, studying the bible intensly, did not eat meat, and made plans to become a minister like his father. In 1877 He attended the University of Amsterdam to study theology, however he failed his exams. He then once again traveled across Europe as a wanderer looking for various religious posts but eventually returned home to his parents for several years. Vincent had begun to show signs of mental illness at this point, and his parents felt he should be committed to an insane asylum.  

Life as a Painter

In the fall of 1880 van Gogh returned to the town of Cuesmes, where he decided to become a fulltime painter, with the support of his brother Theo. Vincent studied under Dutch painter Willem Roelofs and later enrolled at the Academie Royale des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, Belgium. During this time he once again grew infatuated with a woman, his cousin who rejected his overly persistent approach. He then spent time with his other cousin, Anton Mauve, who had become an established painter in the Hague. Van Gogh learned alot from Mauve, including new painting styles of charcoal, pastels, watercolor, and oil techniques. Vincent soon however cut ties with his cousin Mauve, due to various disagreements and he began to date a prostitute for some time.

However once again due to poverty, heartbreak, and depression he returned to his parents in 1883, who were living in the Dutch town of Nuenen. With funding from his parents, Vincent was able to fully focus on his paintings and completed one of his first notable works The Parsonage Garden at Nuenen. He fell in love with a neighbor briefly, but once again his parents did not approve of the relationship. Vincent's father died in 1885 of a heart attack. He then began a new phase of still-life and peasant depictions using dark watercolor undertones. He sold some of his first works that year including the Potato Eaters, Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette, and Head of an Old Farmer's Wife in a White Hat.    

He then moved to Antwerp, funded by his brother Theo, where he continued life as a struggling impoverished painter. His diet consisted mostly of alcohol, tobacco, bread, and coffee. While in Antwerpt van Gogh developed a newer appreciation of colors and would spend time in museums studying the work of Peter Paul Rubens. Van Gogh also became fascinated with Eastern Japanese art and their use of woodblock prints. He studied briefly at the Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp however quickly clashed with the art instructors.   

In Paris during the Bella Epoque

In 1886 he moved in with his brother Theo in the Parisian art district of Montmartre. Vincent began painting portraits of friends and local Parisians as well as a more colorful and brighter style of still-lifes and urban landscapes. He amassed a great collection of Japanese art and demonstrated an original style of Japanese influenced impressionist art, which he described as Japonaiserie. Van Gogh's painting of the Courtesan after Eisen (1887) was his finest example of this Japanese woodblock artform also known as ukiyo-e. 

During this Bella Époque of Paris he joined the circle of many famous artists such as Australian John Russell, Emile Bernard, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Paul Cezanne, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac, and one of his closest friends Paul Gaugin. He joined these artists in the new artistic movement of post-impressionism and pointillism. During his two years in Paris, van Gogh painted over 200 works. However while he had received admiration among the artist community, including the elder Camille Pissarro, he still had yet to achieve any financial success from his works. In 1888 he decided to change scenes to move from an urban setting to a rural setting in southern France.

Arles: His greatest works

Encouraged by his friend Paul Gaugin, Vincent decided to move to the coastal city of Arles, France. Here he experienced his greatest inspiration yet in this far off rural land with sweeping landscapes of rivers, hills, and forests. He painted with newer vibrant styles of light and colors depicting the French countryside. Van Gogh sought to create a community of artists in this southern district and encouraged his best friend Gaugin to join him. Paul eventually joined him for nine weeks at an art studio they described as the Yellow House. In anticipation of this visit Van Gogh painted various works of sunflower still-lifes which was a favorite theme of Gaugin.

During Gaugin's visit in the fall of 1888 Van Gogh painted some of his most famous works including the Bedroom in Arles, the Night Cafe, Cafe Terrace at Night, Starry Night over the Rhone, and the Still Life Vase with Twelve Sunflowers. Van Gogh admired Gaugin greatly and had hoped that he would stay in Arles indefinitely. However Gaugin was a more established painter and had a greater ego then Van Gogh. Soon the two began quarreling over paint techniques and Gaugin's growing boredom with the town. Van Gogh began to display panic outbreaks, bouts of schizophrenia, and mental collapses due to their various disagreements.

In what is regarded as his most infamous panic attack, Van Gogh decided to cut off his ear with a razor in December of 1888. He then bandaged the wound and presented the cut ear to a prostitute, asking her to deliver to Gaugin. While the stories are often unclear, it seems Van Gogh had experienced a mental breakdown and committed this self-inflicting harm, to change Gaugin's mind of leaving. Gaugin did not visit Van Gogh in the hospital and left the town of Arles shortly after. While in the hospital van Gogh painted his famous Self Portrait with the Bandaged Ear. When he finally left the hospital his mental state continued to weaken with continuous bouts of hallucinations and schizophrenia. After meeting with a doctor he voluntarily decided to enter an insane asylum in Saint-Remy-de-Provence. 

Insane Asylum and Death

In May of 1889 Van Gogh committed himself to the Saint Paul Asylum in Saint-Remy de Provence (on the outskirts of Arles). While in this institution he continued various great artworks depicting the gardens and his view from his window. It was in the summer of 1889 that he completed his famous masterpiece The Starry Night. A beautiful mysterious image that clearly depicts Van Gogh's darker and maddening state. During this time his subject material was limited and he adapted the works of others such as his revisioning of Gustave Dore's illustration Prisoner's Round as well as variations to his portrait of L'Arlesienne (depicting the owner of the Arles Cafe van Gogh would frequently visit).

By 1890 Van Gogh had finally begun to receive some public acknowledge of his works and was even welcomed to a new avant-garde circle of painters from Brussels. He left the insane asylum and moved to the town of Auvers-sur-Oise (on the outskirts of Paris) seeking fresh air. He lived near the psychiatrist Dr. Paul Gachet whom frequently treated Van Gogh. Gachet was an admirer of Van Gogh's work and was later the subject of a famous portrait. In his final weeks in Auvers his paintings began to reflect his older memories of Dutch life and landscape. His painting of the Church at Auvers was another famous painting of this time. 

He began to write letters to his brother Theo, that described his growing depression, loneliness, and hopelessness. At that point it became clear that his end was near, as he even stated in a letter that "the prospect grows darker, and I see no happy future at all". On July 27th, 1890 Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a revolver while painting in a field. He was able to walk back to the inn he was staying at, however quickly needed medical attention. His friend Dr. Gachet was there that night to provide surgical care. The next morning Vincent's brother Theo arrived, and the two shared some encouraging conversation. However Van Gogh's condition quickly began to worsen and he died the following day on July 29th. His final words were "The sadness will last forever".   

Van Gogh's Most Famous Paintings

• The Potato Eaters (1985)
• Skull of a Skelton with Burning Cigarette (1886)
• Self Portrait (1887)
• 
  Sunflower Series (1888)
• The Cafe Terrace at Night (1888)
  
• The Bedroom (1888)
• The Night Cafe (1888)
• Starry Night over the Rhone (1888)
• The Red Vineyard (1888)
• The Yellow House (1888)
• Fishing Boats on the Beach (1888)
• Van Gogh's Chair (1888)
• L'Arlesienne series (1888-1889)
• Self Portrait with Bandaged Ear (1889)
• The Starry Night (1889)
• Wheat Field with Cypresses (1889)
• Saint Paul Asylun, Saint Remy (1889)
• Ward in the Hospital (1889)
• Prisoners' Round (1890)
• Church at Auvers (1890)
• Portrait of Dr. Gachet (1890)

Literature Study: F. Scott FItzgerald

As we turn to the fall season I still hang on to remnants of various phases from the summer. It was a summer of Latin Culture, music appreciation, Ernest Hemingway, visual art, Spanish culture, and of course French culture. I've especially been intrigued once again to the 1920s Jazz age, and the group of writers known as the Lost Generation. This fascination probably all started from one of my all time favorite films, Midnight in Paris. I made a thorough study on this topic back in 2014 with various posts including, Paris in the 1920s. It was during that film that I learned of this close circle of artists that lived in Paris, which included Ernest Hemingway and Scott Fitzgerald. 

I recently finished Hemingway's memoir of his time in Paris known as A Moveable Feast. This was such a great book to be inside the author's mind as he recounted his day-to-day experiences Paris. This included his relation with his wife Hadley, and his association with other artists of the time such as Gertrude Stein, Sylvia Beach (book publisher and owner of Shakespeare and Company Bookstore), James Joyce, Ford Madox Ford, Ezra Pound, and the Fitzgeralds. I especially found the few chapters about the Fitzgeralds to be very fascinating. While it seems the depiction is always that Zelda was the crazy eccentric, Hemingway makes quite clear that Scott was also overly dramatic. His account of their trip to Lyon demonstrates Fitzgerald's brilliance but also his recklessness and alcoholic tendencies. His devotion to Zelda however was unquestionable. I especially came to further understand this in the television series, Z: The Beginning of Everything. 

The name Scott Fitzgerald has been well known to me since I can remember, long before I was ever familiar with the name Ernest Hemingway. I'm pretty sure in school we discussed his masterpiece novel, The Great Gatsby, frequently in literature classes. I was familiar with the story and had even seen the 1974 adaptation of the film starring Robert Redford and Mia Farrow, but it was the 2013 film starring Leonardo DiCaprio that made me a true fan of the novel. DiCaprio is such a great historical actor, and he really brought the obsessive lead character of Jay Gatsby to life in the backdrop of New York City 1920s. While this was Fitzgerald's magum opus, he wrote other great works set during the Jazz Age such as The Beautiful and Damned (1922), Tales of the Jazz Age (1922) and Tender is the Night (1934). I soon intend to read Tender is the Night, but first I want to better understand the life of this iconic American author. 

Early Life and Ginevra King

Francis Scott Fitzgerald was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota in 1896 to a middle class Catholic family. He was named after Francis Scott Key who had written the Star Spangled Banner. From Minnesota his father moved the family to Buffalo, New York where Scott spent most of his childhood years. As a young boy Scott displayed great intelligence and affection for books. In high school he wrote for the school newspaper and quickly gained recognition for his talent. In 1913 he enrolled in Princeton University eager to become a great writer, he joined literary circles and wrote for various school publications. 

While in college he met his first love Ginevra King, a wealth
y aristocrat from Chicago. Much to the dismay of her father, they dated for several years and she became the inspiration to much of his writings. This included the character of Isabelle Borgne from This Side of Paradise and Daisy Buchanan from the Great Gatsby. Ginevra was mad in love with Scott, however her family disapproved of his lower class and what they considered his dead-end profession in writing and the relationship came to an end. In response to this the heartbroken Scott decided to enlist in the army at the onset of WWI, with intents to die in battle.          

Meeting Zelda Sayre

In June of 1918 while stationed at a military fort outside Montgomery, Alabama Scott met the southern belle Zelda Sayre at a country club. Although he still had strong affections towards Ginevra, after she married, Scott decided to fully dedicate himself to Zelda. Luckily the war ended before Scott was sent to the battlefronts in Europe, and he began to spend more time with Zelda in Alabama. In 1919 Scott moved to New York City eager to find work as a writer, while he continued to write to Zelda. He was however unable to convince her of his financial stability and so their relationship fizzled. 

Scott eventually found some work for an advertising agency but he still lived mostly in poverty that first year in New York. He often struggled with depression during this time, having lost two romances in Ginevra and now Zelda and nearly committed suicide several times. Scott later moved back into his parent's home in Saint Paul, feeling utterly defeated. It was here that he put forth all his effort and personal experiences into the book This Side of Paradise. The book was a fictional account of his years in Princeton and his romances with Ginevra and Zelda. By the winter of 1920 the book was published and quickly became a bestseller. Scott was overjoyed to have finally achieved his lifelong dream to be a famous writer. Shortly after he had achieved fame he re-united with Zelda with a newly acquired wealth status. They married in the spring of 1920 (however Scott still preferred Ginevra over Zelda).  

Jazz Age in New York City

The Fitzgerald couple were instantly celebrities where they lived a happy and lavish life in New York City. They were renown for their carefree childish behavior and frequent public displays of affection. It was during this great period of happiness in the early 1920s that Scott coined the term the Jazz Age. Giving homage to the newly emerging musical style, Scott saw this era as a cultural renaissance of social liberation. He and Zelda became frequent party-goers and also heavy drinkers during this time. In the winter of 1921 they had their only child named Francis Scott. Upon the birth of her daughter, Zelda uttered that she hoped she would be beautiful little fool. A famous line that Scott would later use in his novel The Great Gatsby.

In 1922 the Fitzgeralds moved to Long Island, where Scott finished and published his second novel The Beautiful and Damned. This was once again a personalized fiction of his life, pertaining to an artist that goes bankrupt and then falls out of grace with his wife (based off of Zelda). He wrote many short stories including the famous Curious Case of Benjamin Button. He later published many of these short stories that year in a book titled Tales of the Jazz Age. By 1923 Scott had begun to grow bored of his upper class lifestyle in Long Island. It was here however that he met his mysterious wealthy neighbor, Max Gerlach who would become the inspiration for the character of Jay Gatsby. Max was a WWI vet, millionaire bootlegger, who threw massive parties and frequently used the term, "Old Sport".    

France and The Great Gatsby

In 1924 seeking a new inspirational environment the Fitzgeralds moved to France, where Scott began writing his 3rd novel, The Great Gatsby. The book was once again a personalized experience of his upper class life in New York, and his romance with Ginevra. Scott could relate to this self-made man of Jay Gatsby, who became a millionaire but still was never good enough for the true aristocrat Daisey (a reference to his failed relationship with Ginevra due to class difference). His work on this book however was often interrupted due to quarrels with his wife Zelda. She had become jealous of his success, preferred to party, and even begun having an affair with a French pilot. 

After this affair came to an end, the Fitzgeralds moved to Rome in 1925 where Scott finally finished his novel. The book was released in April of 1925 and quickly received critical acclaim however did not sell as well as his previous works. The book was not considered a masterpiece classic until after his death, and was especially celebrated for it's artistic cover known as the Celestial Eyes. To this day it has been considered a staple of classic American literature. However in his lifetime Scott never truly felt the proper success that this book would later receive.  

In 1926 the Fitzgeralds traveled back and forth from the French Rivera to Paris. It was during this time that Scott became associated with other fellow writers such as Ernest Hemingway in what would become known as the Lost Generation. Hemingway and Scott became close friends, however Zelda was never fond of Hemingway's crude style. The relationship between Scott and Zelda continued to grow more toxic while in Europe much ado to their party lifestyle. Each of them would partake in extramarital relationships for the sole purpose of making the other jealous. By the end of 1926 they decided it would be best if they left Europe and returned to America. 

Hollywood and Delaware

The Fitzgerald's continued their lavish party lifestyle in Hollywood, where Scott pursue new interests in film screenwriting. However once again their relationship was strained due to a new affair Scott had with actress Lois Moran. This resentment caused the couple to leave Hollywood and relocate to Delaware in 1927. It was during this time Scott completed his fourth and final novel Tender is the Night. It was yet another personal experience for Scott who saw himself this time as a psychiatrist dealing with his looney wife (based off of Zelda). In the story the Dr. also has an affair with an affluential young actress (based off of Moran).    

It was during this time that Scott's wife Zelda had begun to show serious signs of mental illness (which he used as material in the book). She attempted several times to commit suicide and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. Zelda however still managed to complete her own artwork and finished a novel during this time in 1932, Save me the Waltz (the book however did not garner much success). Scott published his book two years later in 1934 and also it initially received poor criticism. Similar to the Great Gatsby however the book great in legacy over time.  

Final Years in Hollywood

By the mid-1930s amidst the Great Depression the Fitzgerald's fame and fortune began to decline. Between their lavish lifestyle and the costs of Zelda's medical expenses the couple soon found themselves in serious financial struggles. Scott's alcoholism had reached new levels at this point in which he was hardly ever sober. This would soon cause to various health issues such as tuberculosis. The couple became infamous tabloid stories due to Zelda's frequent visits to insane asylums and Scott's frequent visits to the hospital. In 1937 Scott found brief work as a screenwriter for MGM once again in Hollywood. 

By this point Scott and Zelda began to drift apart. In 1938 Scott met again with his 1st love Ginevra but the meeting was a disaster due to his inebriated state. He then dated a British journalist, Sheilah Graham, for the last few remaining years of his life. However Scott could never get over the guilt of Zelda's insanity as well as his declining fame. He was unable to achieve film success in Hollywood which only increased his depression, alcoholism, and deteriorating health. Despite a brief lapse of sobriety he suffered suddenly from a heart attack and died in December 1940, at the age of 44. Zelda was devastated by the loss and continued to struggle with bouts of mental illness. She was tragically killed in a fire at a mental institution in 1948.     

  Famous Scott Fiztgerald Writings

• This Side of Paradise (1920)
• 
  The Ice Palace (1920)
• Bernice Bobs her Hair (1920)
  
• May Day (1920)
• The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (1922)
• The Beautiful and the Damned (1922)
• The Diamond as Big as the Ritz (1922)
• Winter Dreams (1922)
• Absolution (1924)
• The Great Gatsby (1925)
• The Rich Boy (1926)
• Babylon Revisited (1931)
• Tender is the Night (1934)        

Evolution of Western Visual Art (Paintings)

For me one of the highlights from our trip to Washington DC last month, was visiting the Smithsonian National Gallery of Art. I've been to a few art museums here and there in my day (Indianapolis, Kansas, Costa Rica come to mind) but none quite compared to DC. We visited both the National Gallery of Art and the National Portrait Gallery (which were both surprisingly free) and saw so many classic gems. Paintings that I have seen quite frequently in books or encyclopedias, most notably when I wrote blogs. Classic works by Vincent Van Gogh, Johannes Vermeer, Titian, Paul Cezanne, George Seurat, Claude Monet, Rembrandt, Jan van Eyck, Michelangelo, JMW Turner, Raphael, Leonardo di Vinci, Botticelli, Picasso, and so many more.  

Ever since I have been especially inspired by the classic works of painting. From the painters, their paintings, to the evolution of the artistic movements. The history of art is no doubt a refection of the history of mankind's culture. I once made a deep dive in the studies of art in the summer of 2011. I remember during my courier breaks I would spend free time at the library paging thru books of famous paintings. I was so awe-inspired and finally became familiar with the names and classic works. I eventually wrote a blog highlighting my favorite painters and my favorite paintings (My Favorite Painters, Favorite Paintings 25-21, Favorite Paintings 20-16, Favorite Paintings 15-11, Favorite Paintings 10-6, Favorite Paintings 5-1). However I was just barely scratching the surface of what kind of art this was. 

In this post I want to make a deeper dive in the various forms, schools, and movements of art throughout history. I want to understand the evolution of the art movements throughout time. While I would like to capture the entire world history of art, I think for time sake I can only begin with a focus on western art. There are after all so many different forms and great artists to get into. Perhaps when I begin my Japanese phase I can revisit this topic with a full post on the evolution of Eastern Art. So we'll start thru the ancient days, to the middle ages, the renaissance, the romantic era, impressionism, surrealism, and the modern era. 

Ancient Paintings

Some of the earliest forms of painting have been discovered in caves dating back 40,000 years ago. These were mostly paintings of various shapes, figures, humans, animals, often handprints and such. Found all over ancient civilizations from Europe to Africa, Egypt, and China. They often represented spiritual notions, giving praise to nature or their gods. One of the ancient techniques of creating these images was thru rock carving known as petroglyphs. 

The Ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, India, China, and Egypt began to really advance their techniques and pigmentations over time. While their artistic buildings and sculptures took precedence they were often illustrated with great paintings and murals. They also introduced new forms of papyrus (thick paper) that provided a canvas to capture the paintings. The Egyptians took their art to the next level by creating symbolic illustrations that depicted every day life as well as the gods. They also created an artistic written language of icons displayed throughout their visual paintings that became known as hieroglyphics. 

Greek and Roman Classical Age

During the rise of ancient Greece, from the Island of Crete a new style emerged known Minoan Art. This was the first form of Aegean art, captured on architecture, sculptures, and pottery. From 3500BC to 1100 BC this became the most popular of the Greek Arts, in contrast to Mycenean Art and Cycladic Art. Some of their most famous paintings include the Prince of Lilies (1550 BC), the Bull Leaping Fresco (1450 BC), and La Parisienne (1400 BC). Following the fall of the Minoan Civilization Greek art took a downturn during what is known as their Dark Age.

That was until 800 BC during the age of Archaic Greece, where the arts flourished once again. Great works of classical architecture, sculpture, and art were created throughout the new capital of Athens that demonstrated a new form of symmetry. Paintings and illustrations were best captured as pottery decorations often depicting warriors in combat or homage to the gods. One of the most famous of these vase painters was known as Andokides from Athens who created many works of art from 530-515 BC. Other great painters of the Classical Greek Age include Apelles, considered one of the first artists to paint Alexander the Great; Then from the Ionian School was Zeucis, Timanthes, and Parrhasius well known for their reliastic depictions of nature. 

The Romans carried on the classical influence of the Greeks, with similar great works of architecture and art. Just as the Greeks their visual art celebrated the beauty of the human body whilst also depicting mythological tales of heroes and gods. The Romans however created many more frescoes on plaster particularly in Pompeii and Herculaneum which was unfortunately destroyed by volcano in 79 AD. It is here that one of the most iconic houses of art is still perserved known as the House of the Vetti. Created in 62 AD, this house depicts 12 masterful paintings of mythological scenes, most famously the Punishment of Ixion. 

Throughout it's long era as the global power, Rome underwent various phases of artistic style ranging from stonework to portraits (as seen in the Fayum Mummy Portraits), Mosaic art to the introduction of Christian art. The mosaic style was first introduced by the Hellenistic Greeks, as a montage of tiles that create a surreal image However the Romans made it far more popular with many great surviving works. One of their most iconic works is the Alexander Mosaic, created in Pompeii 100 BC which depicts the Battle of Issus. Other great works of Roman Art include the Villa of Mysteries (50 BC), The Painted Garden Fresco (30 BC), and Polyphemus and Galatea in Landscape (100 AD).   

Middle Ages

Following the fall of the Roman Empire, Europe entered what is known as the Dark Ages however the practice of art continued throughout various kingdoms. At this time it was no longer influenced by mythological deities yet rather the increasing spread of Christianity. The Byzantine Empire carried on the Roman Mosaic tradition with great works depicting emperors and Jesus Christ. One of the earliest forms of Byzantine art is seen in the Basilica of San Vitale completed in 547 AD, that depicts the emperor Justinian with his advisors. Aside from their mosaic art the Byzantines also produced many forms of religious icon art which later caused a great disagreement among religious officials.  

By the 4th-5th century, the city of Constantinople had become the new Rome of Europe, a flourishing center for culture and the arts. It was here that many great works of Byzantine sculptures and churches were built adorned with great paintings of murals, frescos, and mosaics. The Byzantines introduced the gold ground style which provided a golden leaf backdrop in many of it's Christian art-works. This was used as a way to enhance the image with powerful lighting but also a more symbolic representation of heavenly aura. Other great works of Byzantine art include the Virgin with Child (976), the Theotokos of Vladimir (1131), and the Christ Pantocrator (1261), arguably the greatest work of Byzantine art displayed in the Hagia Sophia.   

While Byzantine Art was probably the most prominent there were still other forms of art throughout the barbaric tribes of Europe known as the Migration Period Art. This included Anglo-Saxon art which demonstrated great religious illustrations in their manuscripts of the time. By the 7th century the northern barbaric tribes created a new artistic style known as Insular Art. This was once again displayed thru intricate designs within books notably in the opening page or the first letter of a stanza. Islamic Art also began to spread throughout parts of Europe as the Caliphs captured territory in Spain and parts of the Byzantine Empire. 

By the 12th and 13th century a new style of Romanesque and Gothic painting began to spread throughout Europe. Whether in manuscripts or within these churches were great illustrations of detail. Many churches used this artistic style to covered the entire ceilings and walls from side-to-side. Stained glass windows also became a new artistic visual expression during this medieval time. The Gothic style of painting developed out of France during the 1200s with more vivid expressions. Some great examples of Gothic paintings include the Lamentation of Christ by Giotto (1305), the Maesta del Duomo di Siena by Duccio (1311), and my personal favorite the Coronation of the Virgin by Fra Angelico (1432).          

Northern Renaissance

During the mid to late 1400s a renaissance of great painters emerged from the Low Countries of Europe. This consisted of the regions of modern day Belgium, Netherlands, and French Flanders in a style that is quite different than the simultaneous Italian Renaissance. Netherlands was on the precipice of a golden age that first began with the Flemish works of Jan van Eyck in the 1420s-1440s. His most famous oil painting the Arnolfini Portrait (1434) demonstrated a very unique style of glimmering realism. He made over 20 great works of portraits, royal figures, and Christian depictions such as his famous work The Ghent Altarpiece (1432). 

He was later carried on by the bizarre work of Hieronymus Bosch from the Netherlands, who created various paintings of biblical concepts. He displayed a genuine creativity in his works best regarded for his surreal depictions of heaven and hell. Painted with oil on oak wood, his works often provided great detail of human emotions in the use of illusionism, pertaining to bliss yet also a darker side of fear and death. Two of his most famous works include the Temptation of Saint Anthony (1501), and The Garden of Earthly Delights (1510).

Other great artists of the Northern Renaissance include Robert Campin, Rogier van der Weyden, Dieric Bouts, and Petrus Christus all who used a similar technique of realism in oil painting. Albrecht Durer was part of the German Renaissance well renown for his self portraits. One of the greatest to come from this age was Pieter Bruegel the Elder also from the Netherlands (1530-1569). The work of Pieter could be seen as the end of the Northern Renaissance and the beginning of the Dutch Golden Age of painting. His paintings had a unique style of realism that depicted great landscapes pertaining to the peasants whilst also the dark elements of death (similar to Bosch). Some of his most famous works include The Hunters in the Snow (1565), and the Tower of Babel (1563) 

Italian Renaissance

Arguably considered one of the greatest of artistic eras that spread from Italy all throughout Europe during the 15th to 16th centuries. I have been thru various phases of Italian Renaissance appreciation whether from the Christian aspect to the political aspect. I think the artwork of the renaissance has always been a part of my life as a Catholic, and was always around me in the church and schoolwork. I came to further appreciate this era with the Assassin's Creed Part 2, Video Game as well as various shows depicting the powerful Borgia and Medici families who were both key patrons of the arts. I made a deep dive into this topic back in 2012, see History of Christianity: Renaissance so won't go into too much detail here. 

It was in the city of Florence where the Renaissance took off and was later spread to Venice, Rome, and all throughout Europe. Just like other longer historical periods it was broken up into various phases of Early Renaissance (1300-1425), High Renaissance (1495-1520), and Mannerism (1520-1600). The Early Renaissance could be seen as the transition from the Gothic Art movement to a more realist and emotional paintings.  Some of these early painters include Masaccio (The Expulsion; 1426), Sandro Botticelli (The Birth of Venus; 1485), and Domenico Ghirlandaio, The Birth of the Virgin Mary; 1485).  

Most artwork of the Renaissance were religious depictions commissioned by the Catholic Church and thus were painted in great cathedrals. One of the key elements of this new style of Renaissance painting was the concept of humanism which truly celebrated human beauty. The peak of this era known as the High Renaissance brought about some of the most recognizable names in art such as Leonardo da Vinci (Virgin of the Rocks, 1486; The Last Supper, 1490; Mona Lisa, 1516) Raphael (The Wedding of the Virgin, 1504; The School of Athens, 1511), and the great sculptor and painter Michelangelo (Sistine Chapel 1512; The Last Judgement, 1541). Other great artists of this time include Giorgione, Bellini, and Titian from the Venetian School.

The style of Mannerism moved away from the High Renaissance portrayal of beauty with more exaggerated and unbalanced figures. Humans were no longer portrayed with symmetrical masculine and feminine features yet rather elongated unnatural bodies. This shift was first introduced by the later works of Michelangelo that influenced other artists such as Pontormo, Parmigianino, Bronzino, and Tintoretto. This era that emerged in the mid 1500s saw the end of the Renaissance and the transition into new schools of art such the Northern Mannerism of France, Prague, and Netherlands, the Antwerp Mannerism of Belgium, and the eventually emergence of Baroque in the 17th century.    

Baroque Movement

At the turn of the 17th century a new cultural movement emerged known as Baroque. This was on par with the Protestant Reformation and the Age of Enlightenment, where art took on a new form that no longer only glorified Christian religious events. New painting techniques improved the realistic quality of the work with rich undertones of details, light, and shows. Caravaggio from Milan became one of the leaders of this new style that demonstrated a sharp contrast between light and darkness. Some of his most famous works include Bacchus (1590), Judith and Holofernes (1599), Supper at Emmaus (1601) and The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (1601). Another great contributor to the Baroque movement was Nicolas Poussin from France, best known for his work Et in Arcadia Ego (1637).

While art sought to move away from high religion there was still an effort to sustain this theme in the age of Absolutism and Counter Reformation led by the Catholic Revival. One of the key advocates for continued Catholic works was the Spanish Empire, that was undergoing it's own Golden Age. Led by one of their greatest painters Diego Velazquez, his work helped establish a Spanish identity depicting royal family members and historical events. His most famous works include The Surrender of Breda (1635) and his masterpiece, Las Meninas (1656). Other great Baroque artists include Claude Lorrain from France best known for his mythological landscapes and Canaletto best known for his cityscapes of Venice.    

Dutch Golden Age

While the movement of Baroque spread throughout Europe, it was especially felt in the Netherlands that was undergoing it's own Dutch Golden Age. Following th Eighty Years War, the Dutch Republic acheived independence and had quickly become one of the most prosperous nations in Europe. This was celebrated in their great works of art led by some of the greatest painters in Johannes Vermeer, Peter Paul Rubens, and Rembrandt. While the techniques were on par with the Baroque style, this region supported the Protestant reformation and hence created it's own national identity in these works. Simultaneously it's neighbor of Flanders (modern day Belgium) was also undergoing a great cultural awakening of art.

The Dutch introduced new forms of historical painting, portraits, everyday scenes of life, landscapes, and still lifes. One of the leaders of this movement was the great Rembrandt who created a wide range of works from portraits, to biblical themes, landscapes, and so forth. Aside from his many masterful self-portraits other great works include Belshazzar's Feast (1638), The Night Watch (1642), The Samplings Official (1662). Then there was the brilliant work of Johannes Vermeer who created his own style of indoor settings of everyday life, illuminated by light from the window. Some of his most famous works include The Girl with a Pearl Earring (1665) and The Milkmaid (1658). Other great Dutch painters of this age include Frans Hals, Bartholomeus van der Helst, Jan Steen, and Adriaen van Utrecht (renown for his still lifes). 

Flemish painting was also undergoing a renaissance of Baroque works during this time. Following it's boom of Mannerism at, the city of Antwerp had become a new central hub for art and culture by the 1700s. They were led by the great work of Peter Paul Rubens who established a new style of Reformation Christian art, alongside other styles of portraits, landscapes, still lifes, and historical and mythological settings. His work often accentuates human fat and muscle with also savage depictions as seen in the Massacre of the Innocents (1612) or Saturn (1636). Other great Flemish Baroque painters include Anthony van Dyck and Jacob Jordaens.    

    

Rococo 

By the 1700s the Late Baroque movement evolved into what is known as Rococo art. This style from France presented a less formal structure of curvature and carefree portrayals. This was on par with the growing sentiment of French aristocracy and enlightenment that sought to celebrate human liberties, emotions, and pleasures. One of the leading figures of this movement was Antoine Watteau, best known for The Embarkation for Cythera (1717). He was succeeded by the similar decorative paintings of Francois Boucher from Paris, the still-life master Jean Simeon Chardin, and Jean-Honore Fragonard, best known for his masterwork The Swing (1767) which became the ideal representation of Rococo art.

By the early 1800s this art had began to merge with new styles of neo-classicism and romanticism. One of the first great female painters emerged from this age, Elisabeth Vigee le Brun who was a court painter who created many famous portraits of Marie Antoinette. While France was the founders of this movement, there were also similar styles found throughout Italy, Germany, and England that celebrated aristocratic lavishness. Two of the most famous painters from the English Rococo school were William Hogarth and Thomas Gainsborough. While Hogarth often depicted satirical scenes, Gainsborough demonstrated more soothing portraits in the backdrop of beautiful landscapes. Some of his most famous works include Mr. And Mrs. Andrews (1750) and the Blue Boy (1770).        

       

Neoclassicism and Romanticism

Following the Rococo movement throughout the 18th century two new branches of art emerged known as Neo-classicism and Romanticism. The Neoclassicism style was a homage to the old Greek and Roman classical ideals with new modern painting techniques. This style was first introduced by the French painter Jacques-Louis David. As a prominent supporter of the French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte, David painted many historical and political works with great realistic detail. Some of his most famous paintings include Oath of the Horatii (1784), Paris and Helen (1788), and one of my personal favorites The Death of Marat (1793). His work greatly influenced other neoclassical painters such as Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres who also painted great works of historical and mythological beauty.

In opposition to this movement was a new growing ideal of art for art's sake which sought to break free of any religious, historical, or political meaning. This became the cornerstone ideal of the Romanticism movement which brought about some of the greatest painters in history. German painter Caspar David Friedrich became one of the early masters of this movement, demonstrating great works of metaphysical landscapes such as Chalk Cliffs on Rugen (1818), Wander above the Sea of Fog (1818), and Moonrise by the Sea (1822). 

His English counterpart J.M.W Turner took this idea of metaphysical landscapes to new heights with his expressive paintings which could be seen as a pre-cursor to the impressionist movement. Using a watercolor technique Turner created his own unique style of blurry skies often depicted along the sea. Some of his most famous works include Venice the Dogana and San Giorgio Maggiore (1834) and The Fighting Temeraire (1838). Another great English Romantic painter was John Constable best known for his beautiful landscape paintings that demonstrated very expressive clouds in his famous works of Wivenhoe Park (1816) and the Hay Wain (1821).      

From the French School of Romanticism there was the passionate Eugene Delacroix who captured new forms of exotic art. His famous works of Liberty Leading the People (1830) are often seen as pre-cursors to the movements of symbolism. From the Spanish school came the great Francisco de Goya who began as a court painter but grew into a more developed presentation of historical violence and psychological terrors. He is best known for his more dark and violent work such as The Witches' Sabbath (1798), The Third of May (1814), and Saturn Devouring his Son (1823). At this time Americans also began to emerge as great Romantic, landscape, and historical painters such as John Trumbull, John Singleton Copley, Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, and Asher Brown Durand (Kindred Spirits, 1849). 

   

Realism

By the mid 1800s, towards the late age of Romanticism emerged a new artistic movement from France and Russia known as Realism. This art demonstrated it's content at it's most highest quality of vivid detail, free of any conceptual representations. This movement was on par with that of Naturalism that sought to break free of any social or political issues. One of the innovators of this movement was French painter Gustave Courbet, who painted the working class people in contrast to the beautification of the aristocrats demonstrated in Rococo or Romanticism artworks. Courbet's paintings were mostly of landscapes, seascapes, nudes, self portraits, and still lifes. Some of his most famous work include The Desperate Man (1845), Burial at Ornans (1950), and the Painters Studio (1855).

From the Russian school of Realism also came a new celebration of the working class against the industrialization of society. The paintings of Ilya Repin are some of my all time favorites depicting historical events, portraits, and every day life with such incredible detail (yet also a hint of distortion). Some of his most famous works include the Barge Hauler on the Volga (1873), The Religious Procession in Kursk Province (1883), Ivan the Terrible and his Son (1885), and the Celebration of the new Russian Constitution (1805). 

American art had also begun to mature throughout the 1800s alongside great landscape works of naturalism was also the emerging movement of Realism. One of the first great Americans in this discipline was Thomas Eakins who specialized in portraits depicting everyday citizens (often practicing medicine or posing in the nude). Some of his most famous works include The Gross Clinic (1871) and the Swimming Hole (1885). This tradition was continued with the great modern realist works of Edward Hopper during the 1900s (also happens to be one of my favorite painters). Using great detail of watercolor and oil paintings he specialized in urban cafe settings often depicting themes of loneliness. Some of his most famous works include Automat (1927), Chop Suey (1929), and his masterpiece Nighthawks (1942).

Impressionism

If I had to rank my favorite artistic movements, I would probably have Impressionism (and Post-Impression) at the front followed by Realism and the Renaissance. Ever since we were young and did puzzles around Christmas time, it seems like they were always of the Impressionist artform. This movement began in France influenced by the illusionary Romantic work of JMW Turner or Eugene Delacroix. One of the first in this movements to bridge the style of realism with elements of haziness was Edouard Manet. His breakthrough works of The Luncheon on the Grass (1863) and the Bar at the Folies-Bergere (1883) demonstrated this new form of modern representation. 

However it was the great Claude Monet who truly defined the art of impressionism with it's iconic blurry feature. Monet dubbed the term impressionism with his famous painting Impression, Sunrise (1872). Here we see a similar style to JMW Turner depicting a sunset on a seascape. While he went thru various phases of landscapes and outdoor paintings, he is probably best regarded for his artistic presentation of gardens, flowers, and water lilies. This was truly a new form of art that went far beyond a simple image, and provoked deeper thoughts and meaning. 

The work of Camille Pissarro was also an influential contributor to the movement of impressionism. He specialized in rural settings and cityscapes depicting modern day living. His paintings also had the similar style of fuzzy, linear strokes, to give off a surreal illusion of an image. His Boulevard Montmartre series (1897) depicting the rainy streets and carriages of Paris are some of my all time favorites. Pissarro was also a key contributor and a father figure to the post-impressionist movement of Cezanne, Seurat, Gaugin, and Van Gogh.

Another one of the all time great French Impressionist painters was Pierre-Auguste Renoir. He especially preferred to celebrate female beauty, expression, and sensuality in his paintings, which consisted of many nudes. Renoir captured such realism and beauty in facial expressions, which were emphasized with hazy dreamlike backdrops. This feature is specially on display in his masterful works Pont-Neuf (1872), Bal du Moulin de la Galette (1876) and Luncheon of the Boating Party (1880). The famous painting of the Luncheon is quite unique in that of the many people gathered none are looking directly at one another.     

The artist Edgar Edgars brought forth his own style of impressionism with heavier elements of realism. He specialized in capturing movement whether thru dance such as ballet or thru racehorses. He also painted portraits depicting complex human emotions of depression and isolation. Some of his most famous works include the Ballet Class (1874), and the Absinthe (1876). Other great Impressionist painters included Alfred Sisley, Gustave Caillebotte (Paris Street Rainy Day, 1877), American Mary Cassatt, and Eugene Boudin often referred to as the King of the Skies.        

Post Impressionism, Pointilism, and Primitism

By the late 1800s a new generation of artists sought to create their own modern style of artistic expression (also one of my favorite movements). The period of Post-Impressionism began with the works of Paul Cezanne who demonstrated a new style with more vivid colors. His paintings depicted portraits, still-lifes sometimes depicting skulls, and landscape settings in an almost animated fashion. Some of his most famous works include the Card Players (1895), the Pyramid of Skulls (1901), and the Bathers (1905). This colorful style also became prominent in the works of the other great painters such as Georges Seurat, Vincent Van Gogh, Gauguin, and Henri Rousseau who created their own distinctive styles. 

The work of Georges Seurat carried on the illusionary style of impressionism with a new technique called pointillism. Instead of the usual brush strokes his images were made up of many colorful dots. He produced many masterful works such as the Bathers at Asnieres (1884), Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1886), and Le Chahut (1890). The French artist Paul Signac also used this distinctive technique of pointillism is his colorful paintings. This technique became a precursor to the style of divisionism, fauvism, and cubism.            

Dutch artist Vincent Van Gogh could be considered the greatest of the post-impressionist painters and also happens to be one of my favorite painters. His work is the epitome of trance art, blurring reality with the fantasy. He uses various techniques of realism, pointillism, and impressionism in his works of portraits, landscapes, still-lifes and various other images. His work is all the more celebrated due to his mental episodes of depression, delusions, and lunacy. He has many famous works but some of my all time favorites include the Night Cafe (1888), the Cafe Terrace at Night (1888), the Starry Night Over the Rhone (1888), the Starry Night (1889), as well as his various self portraits and still-lifes of sunflowers.  

One of Van Gogh's best friends was the painter Paul Gauguin who also created his own unique style of post-impressionism paintings. His work was also very colorful, vivid, and surreal in a style known as synthetism. He later traveled to Tahiti and the islands of French Polynesia where he became inspired to incorporate a new style of vibrant colors later known as primitivism. This abstract form, also known as Naïve Art, became a specialty of the French painter Henri Rousseau. His works often depicted colorful African animals and landscapes, which was a very new form of art. Some of his most famous work includes The Sleeping Gypsy (1897), The Hungry Lion throws itself on the Antelope (1905), and the Dream (1910). 

Modernism, Fauvsim, Cubism

At the turn of the 20th century carrying on with the post-impressionist movement, many artists were still seeking for newer forms of modern expression. At this point visual art began to branch off into many various directions of styles and technique. This truly began to broaden the artistic interpretation of deeper meaning behind the works. This branching of various forms can often be grouped within the school of modernism that emerged in the early 1900s. It was the breakthrough work of Van Gogh, Cezanne, Gauguin, Seurat, and Rosseau that opened the door to this new progressive movement. 

The style of Fauvism is a perfect example that branched off from impressionism and pointillism. This movement was a fusion of various styles introduced by French painter, Henri Matisse. He continued the practice of colorful images in his paintings with abstract and unnatural brush strokes. His definitive work of The Woman with a Hat (1905) displays this surreal tendency. Andre Derain, good friend of Matisse, was another proponent of the Fauvism. This painting style truly opened the doors for more abstract, expressionism, and symbolic works. 

The work of Pablo Picasso could also be categorized in this modernist era as he also created his own style of abstract art known as Cubism. Whilst also a sculptor Picasso underwent various phases throughout his artistic career. His early periods known as the Blue and Rose period had elements of abstract Fauvism, with strong colors and neutral facial expressions. He then changed his style to create Cubism, which essentially broke an image up into various angular pieces. This led to a new style of oen artistic interpretation as an asymmetrical work. His prime examples of this style include Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), Portrait of Daniel Henry Kahnweiler (1921), and his masterpiece Guernica (1937). Another great painter of the Cubism and Fauvism movement was Georges Braque who was also a colleague of Picasso.  

Influenced by Georges Seurat, the work of Jean Metzinger carried on this painting style of modernism, with blended elements of divisionism, fauvism, and cubism. He specialized in creating objects broken up into various parts yet still giving off a stimulating and aesthetic visual. Some of his most famous works include La Femme au Cheval (1912) and Dancer in a Cafe (1912). Metzinger helped establish an organization of modern artists living in Paris known as the Section d'Or that shared a common interest in the cubism, divisionism, and fauvism styles. Such artists included Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, and Fernand Leger. 

Expressionism and Symbolism 

  

Another school of art that branched from the post-impressionist movement to the modernist era was that of Expressionism. This modern form of art emphasized human emotions and complex psychological visuals. The concept was often one of abstract distortion that either took the viewer into someone's else emotional episode or created an image to cause the viewer an emotional reaction. Arguably one of the definitive images of this movement was Norwegian Edvard Munch's painting The Scream (1893). This painting depicts someone experiencing a raw panic attack surrounded by an aura of waves no doubt representing madness. Other great paintings of his include Madonna (1895) and the Sick Child (1896).

Other great expressionist painters included Marc Chagall of Russia who blended elements of cubism, fauvism, and symbolism into his abstract works. Some consider his work to be the precursor to surrealism. The famous Italian painter Amedeo Modigliani was also associated with the expressionist movement. He was part of the School of Paris, the Section d'Or, as well a contributor to Picasso's community in Montmartre. He portrayed a sexual style which often depicted portraits of elongated necks and nude women. James Ensor was another influential expressionist painter who also dipped into styles of symbolism.     

The movement of Symbolism predates the Modernist era, however certainly became more practiced during this time. This artwork often depicts more metaphoric images using elements of mysticism and fantasy. It also often sometimes displays darker themes of philosophy, hedonism, erotic perversion, and death. Belgian painter Felicien Rops became one of the leading figures of the modern symbolist movement with his painting Pornocrates (1878). This was an iconic painting of the Decadant Movement that displayed a blunt image of shameful human excess. 

Pierre Purvis de Chavannes presented a Romantic form of symbolism depicting human beauty with elements of mysterious allegories, best seen in his famous work The Young Girls by Seaside (1879). James McNeil Whistler can also be considered in the symbolist movement, even though he is best known for inventing tonalism. His most famous works include the Whistler's Mother (1871) and the abstract work known as the Nocture in Black and Gold- The Falling Rocket (1877). This unique painting depicts a night sky that is illuminated by fireworks. While it is a very beautiful image it is difficult to understand exactly what is happening.             

Another one of the iconic artists of the modernist age was the Austrian painter Gustav Klimt. He was a leading figure of the Vienna Secession Movement that introduced new forms of artistic expression known as symbolism and Art Nouveau. Although he went thru various artistic phases he is best known for his use of the gold leaf as well as erotic depictions of the female body. Some of his most famous paintings include Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907), and the Kiss (1907). Another leading figure of the symbolist movement was French artist Gustave Morau who painted allegories pertaining to mythological and biblical events. Some of his most famous works include Oedipus and the Sphinx (1864), L'Apparition (1876), and Salome Dancing Before Herod (1876).     

    

Dada and Surrealism

Another branch of modernism that truly began to push the limits of abstract interpretation was Dada and Surrealism. The Dada movement emerged from Zurich, Switzerland founded by Hugo Ball with an emphasis on the absurd chaos. This expression took on various movements of symbolism and cubism to create a collage of perplexing images. Marcel Duchamp was one of the the most famous of the Dada painters with notable works such as Nude Descending a Staircase (1912). Other prominent Dada artists included Francis Picabia best known for The Spring (1912) Man Ray, Kurt Schwitters (Construction for Noble Ladies, 1919) and Hannah Hoch (Cut with the Kitchen Knife through the Last Epoch of Weimar Beer-Belly Culture in Germany, 1919).

Many of these Dada artists also dipped into the similar abstract movement of the time known as Surrealism. Created by French artist Andre Breton this form of art expression was best described as "pure psychic automatism" by which the artists creates an impulsive work in the moment rather than a planned image. This technique is also known as automatic drawing, which is prone to accident and thus considered more of a raw and authentic work of art. Another key aspect of surrealism is reaching into the unconscious mind, where artwork often becomes that of a dream or an altered state. This movement really took sway in Paris in the 1920s. 

One of the early successful surrealists was German artist Max Ernst. He created various new techniques such as frottage and grattage, which consisted of pencil rubbings and paint scrapings to create unique images. Some of his most famous paintings include The Elephant Celebes (1921) and the Angel of Hearth and Home (1937). Perhaps one of the most famous surrealist was Spanish artist Salvador Dali. He was the embodiment of an eccentric personality who created many bizarre paintings and works of art, which were often depictions of his dreams. Although it is tricky to interpret these works, they are actually very impressive visual displays. Some of his most famous include The Persistence of Memory (1931), Soft Construction with Boiled Beans (1936), and the Christ of Saint John of the Cross (1951- I remember my grandma had this painting in her house). 

Other great surrealist artists include Joan Miro (The Tilled Field, 1924) and Girogio de Chirico (Songs of Love, 1914). From Mexico there was also a great artistic awakening throughout the 1920s-1930s led by great artists Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo both from the school of surrealism. Rivera specialized more-so in murals depicting Mexican heritage. Frida however really pushed the realms of surrealism with her abstract self-portraits. She created an original distinctive style fusing elements of primitivism, naive art, and even magic realism with images that blended reality with fantasy. Some of her most famous works include Self Portrait with Monkey (1939), The Two Fridas (1939), and Self Portrait with Thorn Necklace and Hummingbird (1940).           

Ashcan Shool and Regionalism

By the 20th century the United States had emerged as the new global economic power, and thus brought forth a renaissance of culture and art. New York City had become the new Paris, a city of artistic community and inspiration. The Ashcan School first developed in the 1890s as group of impressionist and realist painters who sought to depict everyday life in New York City. Some of the leading figures in this movement include Robert Henri (Snow in New York, 1902), George Luks, William Glackens, John Sloan, Everett Shinn, and George Bellows (Cliff Dwellers, 1913 and Dempsey and Firpo, 1924) Many of these artists were inspired by the poetry of Walt Whiltman and would go on to illustrate for major journals and newspapers throughout New York City. Thomas Hopper was also a part of this group, but I already included him in the section on realism. 

In contrast to the urban scenes there was also an American movement that celebrated the rural country life, known as Regionalism. This form of expression kicked off around the 1930s-1940s most notably during the Great Depression. It appealed to the more conservative small-town folk, with simple undertones, moving away from abstract notions. Iconic examples of this movement include Grant Wood's famous painting known as American Gothic (1930); Tragic Prelude (1942) by John Steuart Curry; and Cristina's World (1948) by Andrew Wyeth.  

Abstract-Expressionism

Modern art continued to expand into so many abstract forms throughout the 20th century. Ranging from Suprematism, Neo-plasticism, Synchromism, Futurism, Precisionism, Geometric abstraction, and so forth. Each of these created unique stimulating visual images, while leaving so much open for interpretation. These works of art now became subjective, leaving a range of emotions and reactions from viewers. Famous early pioneers of these art forms include Dutch artist Piet Mondrian, Kazimir Malevich (father of Suprematism), and Stanton Macdonald Wright (founder of Syncromism). 

A second renaissance of modern abstract art began after World War 2 (from the 1940s-1950s) once again based out of New York City. This movement became known as abstract-expressionism with a high emphasis on chaotic images that also created appealing optical illusions. Some key artists of this movement include Arshile Gorky, Richard Pousette-Dart, and Mark Rothko. However one of the most famous of the modern expressionist artists was Jackson Pollock. He specialized in all-over action painting using a unique technique of drip and splashing paint on the canvas. His works somehow present a chaotic yet still enticing visual. This modern artform has no doubt become a reflection of the sophistication and intellectual capacity of human society today.

Pop Art

Throughout the 1950s-1960s in a new age of television, radio, advertising, comic books and such came a new form of artistic expression known as pop art. This was a reference to the popular culture that had been established thru these various new mediums (most notable in America and Britain). This art was often very naïve, simplistic, satirical, and almost childish as a counter response to the abstract-expressionist artform. Some of the early innovators of this artform include Edurado Paolozzzi (I Was a Rich Man's Plaything, 1947), Richard Hamilton, and Robert Rauschenberg.

One of the most iconic leaders in the pop-art movement was American Andy Warhol. Throughout the 1960s Warhol began a new phase of celebrity, corporate, and cultural glorification. Using mostly photographs as his source material, he then applied unique coloring and collage work to give off a stimulant image. Although Warhol is considered today as one of the most significant American modern artists alongside Jackson Pollack, I happened to think his artwork is very dimwitted. This of course leads back to the open for interpretation concept, and there can be no question that his work was still very influential on American pop culture. Some of his most famous works include Campbells Soup Cans (1962) and Maryiln Ditch (1962).

Art today continues to move in various different directions with new movements such as hard-edge painting, minimalism, abstract illusionism to name a few. Although we have entered a new century driven by technology and social media we don't really have one dominant style of art. If we are now living in the post-modern age, visual painting has now taken on a "anything goes" ideology, sometimes referred to as contemporary art. With technology and artificial intelligence these days it seems that artistic painting has maybe become a thing of the past. That still doesn't mean we can't admire the brilliant evolving works of the past.