The past few weeks I have been emerged in the writings of Ernest Hemingway, and am currently almost finished with For Whom the Bells Toll. It seems quite clear that Hemingway had quite the fascination with Spain as he also wrote a story about bullfighting in The Sun Also Rises. He spent some time as a war correspondent reporting on the Spanish Civil War which is the premise of his novel, For Whom the Bells Toll. I'll later have a full review on this book, but just as Old Man and the Sea turned me on to Cuban history, this book has now turned me to Spanish history. It's quite shocking that I have yet to really dive into one of the greatest European powers in history.
Spain is considered the motherland of Latin America, where much of it's cultural and religious customs come from. The language of Spanish is also very common in the United States and is the fourth most spoken language in the world after English, Mandarin, and Hindi. When I think of Spanish history I think of their age of discovery under Catherine of Aragon that uncovered a whole new world in the western hemisphere. While this was a great discovery for humanity it also brought upon a cruel era of conquest over the native people of the land. It then ushered in a golden age for Spain during the 1500s under King Philip II where they had the largest empire in the world.
The Spanish Empire hit it's zenith by around the 1600s and was later surpassed by the powers of England and France. Throughout the 1600-1700s it sided with the Catholic Church throughout the European Wars of Religion fighting against Protestantism. By the early 1800s Spain began to lose much of it's colonial territory in South America and the Caribbean due to wars of independence (such as in Colombia and Mexico). During the 1930s they saw the rise of fascism and a terrible civil war that divided the country for many years. Following the death of dictator Francisco Franco in 1978 the Spanish Empire was finally replaced by a Spanish Republic which operates to this day.
Roman History
Just like most of Europe, Spain wasn't properly civilized until the Greeks and Romans arrived from 600-200 BC. Before this the land was known as the Iberian Peninsula and was inhabited by native groups of Iberians, Celts, Lusitanians, and Tartessians. By 570 BC the Greek Empire had established colonies throughout the Iberian Peninsula such as the island port city of Gadir, present day Cadiz. By 400 BC, the southern part of Iberia was captured by the growing power of Carthage. The whole of Iberia was later fought for between the Carthaginians and the Romans during the Punic Wars (264 BC- 146 BC). By 205 BC the Romans had achieved total victory and conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.
From this point on the region become known as Roman Hispania and was governed by Roman authorities. During this time new roads, aqueducts, and cities were developed such as Valencia, Merida, Leon, and Zaragoza. By the 1st-2nd century Christianity had spread from Rome and was introduced into Hispania as their main religion. By the 400s the Roman Empire had begun to decline and the region of Hispania was later conquered by German tribes and divided into smaller kingdoms ruled by the Vandals and the Visigoths.
Gothic Hispania
The Germanic Tribes that conquered Spain and Portugal in the 5th century consisted of the Visigoths, Suebi, Vandals, and Alans. The Suebi Kingdom was established in the northern region of Galica, the Vandals established the Vandal Kingdom in southern Andalusia, and the Visigoths swallowed up the Alans to control central Hispania based out of Toledo. The Visigothic Kingdom became the dominant Germanic tribe of Hispania for nearly 300 years. Led by their great King Wallia, they had strong ties to the Roman Empire and thus were able to achieve military support against their neighboring Germanic tribes.
Following the fall of Rome by 476 AD, the Visigoths began a military campaign under the leadership of King Euric. From central Hispania the Visigoths marched north and conquered territory in Gaul (southern France, Switzerland, and Italy) and they established the city of Toulouse. Unlike the rest of the Germanic tribes, the Visigoth established a more civilized Roman society, with Christian practices, good infrastructure, and a strong legal system. They even prospered for a while with a strong economy of agriculture, metal and gold production, and a new definitive style of art and architecture. However by the early the 700s they were conquered by a new growing power from the Middle East, the Umayyad Caliphate.
Islamic Conquest
In 711 AD whilst the Visigoth Kingdom was having a civil conflict, the Umayyad Caliphate sent their military commander Tariq ibn Ziyad with an army from Africa to cross the Strait of Gibraltar. Tarik's army faced King Roderic's Visigoth army at the Battle of Guadalete, and won a decisive victory. From here on the Muslim armies pushed northward and had conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula by 718 AD. The region of Hispania now came under Islam control and was known as Al-Andalus, a state of the Umayyad Caliphate. For the next 800 years the region was forced convert to Islam, despite many Christian uprisings, and mass migrations to the northern Frankish kingdoms.
Some Christian uprisings within Hispania were successful, notably the Visigoth leader Pelagius who was able to establish a northern Christian Kingdom of Asturias. For the next 500 years the region of Al-Andalus was at constant war between the Islams and Christians, as various Caliphiates took over the south, they lost territory in the north to Christians. It was also during this time that both cultures (Visigoth and Islam) began to merge and assimilate into a new culture known as the Moors. The Muslims brought forth much of their scientific innovation from Baghdad into Spain during it's cultural Golden Age.
The Reconquista of Hispania from the Islam conquerors was a slow campaign that began in the northern territories of Asturian in the 700s. By the mid 1000s the Kingdom of Castile was established which united much of the northern and central Christian regions of Spain. Over the next 200 years they were able to reacquire territory from the Muslims led by notable leaders such as El Cid. By the 12th century new kingdoms had developed alongside the Kingdom of Castile in the Iberian Peninsula such as Portugal, Leon, and Aragon. The Spanish Christian-Muslim War broke out from 1172-1212 when the Spanish kingdoms joined with the Knights Templar during the 2nd Crusade. The Christians were able to drive out much of the Almohad Caliphate from Central Iberia.
This was the beginning of the end for the Islam occupancy of Spain. The Spanish-Christian armies continued to reclaim territory in the south with key victories in Cordoba and Seville during the 1200s. By this point most Muslims had begin to leave the region of Iberia, whilst some established a stronghold in Granada. By 1492, a big year for Spain, the crowns of Castile and Aragon had united with the marriage of Ferdinand II and Isabelle. Together their armies were able to drive the final blow to Islam conquest with the surrender of Granada. All Jews and Muslims who decided to stay were forced to convert to Christianity.
The Golden Age
The marriage of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 marked a turning point for Spanish history. From here on the two powerful kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united to establish a new Kingdom of Spain. They also made powerful political alliances with the Kingdom of Portugal as well as the Habsburg Dynasty of Austria and the Holy Roman Empire. Isabella and Ferdinand were both devout Catholics and oversaw the final stages of the Reconquista. They also initiated the Spanish Inquisition of 1478 which began a zero tolerance policy towards other religions. All Muslims and Jews were forced to either leave the country, convert to Christianity, or suffer a terrible persecution. Nearly 150,000 were prosecuted throughout this era and approximately 5000 were executed.
However perhaps their greatest breakthrough came by funding the expeditions of Christopher Columbus. In 1492 Columbus discovered the new world, which would later become known as America. This brought on an age of exploration and also conquest of the native lands. By the early 1500s Spanish conquistadors were able to establish colonies in the Mesoamerican lands and send great wealth back to Spain. They also established colonies in Northern Africa in the present day countries of Libya, Morocco, and Algeria. By the end of the 15th century Spain had transformed itself into a Spanish Empire, one of the first global empires in history.
At the start of the 1500s, under the Habsburg dynasty, Spain dominated the Atlantic trade and had the strongest navy in the world. Their port city of Seville had become the new center of the world for trade and culture. With the great amounts of resources and wealth acquired from the Americas Spain entered a flourishing Golden Age. This was simultaneous with the Renaissance spreading across Europe, however Spain brought about it's own style and identity to the arts. Under the reign of King Philip II, new architectural wonders were built such as the royal palace El Escorial and it's library completed in 1584. There was also great contributions in the arts from painters such as El Greco and Diego Velazquez. As well as in music and literature, with the publication of Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote de la Mancha, considered as the first modern novel.
European Wars of Religion
However whilst Spain achieved great power and wealth throughout the 1500s, other nations were also prospering such as England, France, and the Netherlands. Furthermore the Protestant Reformation had begun to spread throughout Europe during the mid 1500s which was a great insult to the devout Catholic Empire of Spain. In 1568 King Philip II began to impose his will on these reformist states beginning with the Dutch Republic. This began the Eighty Years War that pinned the Spanish Empire against the Dutch Republic and their allies of England and France. The conflict went on for a very long time, and King Philip II suffered a humiliating defeat to the British in 1588 at the Spanish Armada.
From this point on Spain began to lose some of it's economic and military prowess, most notably falling behind the rising British Empire. At the start of 1700s Spain found itself emerged in two wars, the tail end of Eighty Years War against the Dutch Republic and the onset of the Thirty Years War waged by the Holy Roman Empire. Spain came to the aid of their political and religious ally the Habsburg Monarchy as it faced civil conflict with the Kingdom of Bohemia. The conflict quickly snowballed into a larger war across Europe that once again pinned Catholicism against Protestantism. The growing powers of France and Sweden achieved victory and forced the Holy Roman Empire to give up much of it's territory.
Following Spain's defeat at the Thirty Years War in 1648, they suffered another defeat to the Kingdom of France in 1659 which forced them to surrender more territory. By this point the Spanish Golden Age had come to an abrupt end as they became the pedestal of King Louis XIV. Whilst they were still able to sustain control of their colonies in the Americas during the 1700s they continued to lose wealth and territory throughout Europe. In 1701 they underwent a civil war known as the War of the Spanish Succession between the Bourbon dynasty and the Habsburg dynasty. With the support of France, the house of Bourbon was victorious and brought an end to the Habsburg Dynasty.
French Influence of the Bourbon Dynasty
With the ascension of the French Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish throne, throughout the 1700s Spain had mostly become a follower of France. During this time Spain began various military engagements with their former allies the Holy Roman Empire to acquire lost territory in Italy (such as Naples, Sicily, and Parma). While they achieved minor victories in the Mediterranean they were later dragged into France's conflict with Britain in 1756 known as the Seven Years War. The war was fought mostly over territory in the Northern American region where both France and Spain were forced to surrender land. Spain gave up their one colony in North America, Florida to Britain.
Spain's partnership with France finally came to a cold ending with the onset of the French Revolution in the 1790s. In 1808 Napoleon invaded Spain during the Peninsular War a conflict that waged for 7 years. With the help of Great Britain and Portugal, Spain was able to repel the French invasion. The Spanish people were especially influenced by the powerful art of Francisco Goya depicting the horrors and injustice brought on by the French. In 1812 Spain established it's first modern constitution known as the Cortes of Cadiz. The war is also regarded as one of the first guerrilla wars in modern history, where Spanish rebels used hit-and-run tactics to surprise French forces.
Fall of the Spanish Empire
While the Peninsular War was a much needed victory for Spain, to break free from their French domination, there were also significant repercussions. This was especially felt throughout the Americas as the wave of independence had spread from France to the United States and onto Latin and South America. From 1808-1826 Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin led the fight for independence across most of South America while Miguel Hidalgo and Ignacio Allende led the independence of Mexico in 1821. During this time Spain lost most of it's territory in the Americas except for Cuba and Puerto Rico (this would come later in the Spanish-American war of 1898).
From 1492 to 1810 Spain had amassed a global empire that spanned 5.3 million square miles, and was the 5th largest global empire in history (behind Britain, the Mongol Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Qing Dynasty). After their loss of the American colonies they had returned to their humble presence in Europe. With the establishment of the new Spanish Constitution of 1812, Spain slowly underwent a brewing civil turmoil between liberal constitutionalists and the conservative faction that favored the monarchy. Ferdinand VII of the house of Bourbon reigned from 1813-1833 in a period of hostility, riots, and economic depression referred to as the Ominous Decade.
Ferdinand was seceded by his daughter Isabella II who reigned from 1833-1868. Just like her father, her reign was an unpopular one and underwent various uprisings until she was finally forced to flee during the Glorious Revolution of 1868. A Spanish Republic was briefly established after this until the Bourbon monarchy was once again restored in 1874. Alfonso XII took to the throne from 1874 to 1885 and was briefly able to quell some of the civil hostility. His son Alfonso XIII seceded him as a very young child, during a time that Spain underwent it's war with America in 1898 to lose it's final colonial territories.
When he came to age, Alfonso XIII became aware of the progressive era that saw monarchies and empires transition to democracies. He bravely chose to remain neutral during WWI which would later earn him a nomination for the Noble Prize. Following the war, there was a populist fervor growing to establish a second democratic republic. Seeking a compromise Alfonso supported the installment of a military dictatorship under the leadership of Miguel Primo de Rivera. The intent of this authoritarian regime was to quell the growing liberal factions throughout Spain. However by 1930 due to the Great Depression, and growing unpopularity Primo de Rivera resigned his office. Alfonso XIII was merely a puppet king at this point, and amidst the growing fervor of liberal and Catalonian revolution he fled the country. In 1931 a Second Spanish Republic was established which favored the liberal agenda of democracy.
The Spanish Civil War
With the establishment of a new Spanish Constitution governed by anti-monarchists, a new wave of liberal and even radical agenda spread throughout Spain. This included more rights for women, limiting the church's influence, as well as granting self-governance to the state of Catalonia. However by 1933 new pockets of conservative rebels had formed all across Spain with new conservative ideals of Falangism (a church state), Carlism (a monarchist state), and Fascism (a military state). In response to these radical right movements, the left also welcomed socialist, communist, and anarchist support from the Soviet Union.
The civil conflict finally broke out into open war after a Coup attempt in July of 1936. The conservatives rebels, led by General Francisco Franco organized a military faction referred to as the Nationalists. They were able to quickly gain a foothold in the regions of Seville, Oviedo, and Zaragoza. The Republic established control of the main cities of Barcelona, Madrid, Valencia, and Bilbao. The young Spanish Republic government was unable to gather much support from the western nations of the United States, Britain, or France. On the contrary however Franco's rebels were heavily aided by the Fascist powers of Italy and Nazi Germany. The Soviet Union was the only nation to come to the aid of the Spanish Republicans. Spain had become the pre-cursor to a new global war between conservative and liberal ideologies.
Despite the Republican's urban and administrative organization the nationalists had a better organized military. The Nationalists quickly took control of the southern regions and achieved a decisive victory to capture Toledo, at the Siege of Alcazar in Sept of 1936. From here on out the Nationalists bombarded Madrid while defeating the northern Basque Country in April of 1937. The bombing of Guernica by the Nazi Luftwaffe that same month became a devastating defeat to the Republican morale. A year after this the Republicans made their final stand at the Battle of Ebro, which was the bloodiest event in the war causing 30,000 deaths. The Nationalists were victorious and from here easily took control of Barcelona and Madrid. Shortly after Franco disbanded the Republic government and established a new dictatorship. The war was the bloodiest event in Spanish history, causing nearly a million lives.
Francoist Spain
In the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War, there was still much resistance, hunting, and purging of the leftist factions. Franco implemented harsh policies of torture known as the White Terror and used methods of torture, execution, and even children abduction to bring the insurgency to an end. At the outbreak of World War II, despite Franco's fascist ideals and his alliance with Hitler and Mussolini he chose to stay neutral as they had done in World War I. Although Spain did not fight in World War II they still supported the Axis Powers with resources and for this they were not allowed to join the United Nations.
In the 1950s Franco reformed his authoritarian regime away from fascism and more towards Falangism, giving the Catholic Church (notably the Opus Dei) more power than it ever had before. At the height of the Cold War, Franco was able to gain favor with the United States due to his strong opposition to communism. This allowed Spain to finally join the United Nations in 1955. During the 1970s Spain underwent an economic boom referred to as the Spanish miracle, on par with that of Japan. Franco's final act before his death was to restore the Bourbon Monarchy in 1975.
Modern day Spain
Following the death of Francisco Franco, King Juan Carlos oversaw a new transition to a democratic constitutional monarchy (similar to Great Britain). The king himself even helped foil another coup attempt in 1981 by Francoist supporters. Spain was finally free from conservative radicalism and opened it's door to European trade and even tourism. They eventually joined NATO in 1982 and the European Union in 1993. In 1992 Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympics, which was the largest international event Spain had ever coordinated and once again put the nation back on the map.
Spain's economic boom came to an abrupt halt with the financial crisis of 2008 that hit their nation especially hard. This led to a minor recession that saw withdrawn investments and a major increase in unemployment. To this day Spain is still recovering from this economic downturn as well as immigration issues. They are still considered a respectable nation with a rich heritage and influence. Although they are not a member of the G8 or the G20, they still serve as an occasional guest to the committees. They are a member of the European G6 as they have the fifth best economy in Europe.
.jpg)
.jpg)
_-_Fondo_Car-Kutxa_Fototeka.jpg)
