Historical Study: Air Bombings of Europe

There are so many different aspects to approach when studying the topic of Nazi Germany or WWII. Just a month ago I finished up on my summer long Asian phase, with some academic studies of the Pacific War. I was especially interested in the firebombing bombings of Japan that are often overlooked by the atomic bombings. This was to be the end of my WWII studies for a while, until I was unexpectedly laid off. I then felt the urge to dive deep into this dark period, perhaps the culmination of getting laid off, the current political events, and watching the film Downfall. I guess watching films or documentaries about the wickedness of Nazi Germany, makes me feel more at peace or grateful I don't live in those days. 

So now that I've dove deep into the Nazi political agenda I'd like to focus more on the war. I've already written about the timeline of WWII, with a focus on the western front allied push. I plan to start a deep dive into the eastern front next week with books, movies, documentaries, etc. But now I'd like to focus on the air raids that occurred throughout Europe and Germany, the same way I did for Japan. Once again I'd like to reiterate that I find this to be a very inhumane way to neutralize an enemy. This concept of "total war" is truly horrifying that an army would target a nation's civilian population. Both Germany and Japan were guilty of using their civilian population as vital production to their war machine, and brainwashed to fight to the death. 

Before the allies began their terrible bombing campaigns, both Japan and Germany had also committed prior atrocities from the air. It was Japan who poked the bear with their bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941 followed by their assaults on Chongquing, China and Darwin, Australia. Despite causing a death toll of around 30,000 it's fair to say the German Luftwaffe caused far worse devastation from the air. Their bombings of Warsaw, Rotterdam, Britain, and the Soviet Union completely annihilated many cities with a death toll around 100,000. However by 1941-1942 the war began to turn to the allies favor which began their campaign of devastation. With these bombing campaigns against civilians, both sides were guilty of crimes against humanity. In this post I'd like to highlight the worse air raids that occurred in the European theater by both the Germans and the allies. 

It's necessary to mention that many of these air-bombings were part of a greater battle or ground operation and thus had tactical importance. Some of these bombardments were total sieges on a city and utilized both air and artillery assaults. I'd like to focus more on the air bombings, since I consider them to be more more devastating and inhumane. There are usually two main strategic purposes for these air bombings; for tactical reasons (to destroy military bases or industrial production) or what is known as "terror bombing" or "scorched earth policy" (to target the civilian population as a means to demoralize the nation to surrender). This was especially the case of the air raids over Japan, seeking to shatter the nation's will to fight thru total devastation. It was also very prevalent throughout Europe, where many innocent civilians were targeted and killed. Also many historical and cultural districts (such as Dresden or Rotterdam) were completely destroyed as a consequence. 

Nazi "Luftwaffe" Bombings

Bombing of Warsaw

Date: September 1939

Bombers: German Luftwaffe (560 tons of high explosives, 72 tons of incendiary bombs)

Death Toll: 25,000-40,000

Structural Damage: 10% destroyed (much more devastation to follow) 

Significance: With the Nazi Invasion of Poland, this marked the beginning of WWII. Before the land invasion could began, the German Luftwaffe led by Herman Goring, initiated a shocking aerial bombardment. The targets included military facilities, barracks, airports, hospitals, schools, and general civilian districts. The Polish morale was quickly horrified by civilian causality and surrendered within a few days of the siege. The city of Warsaw was one of the most devasted cities of WWII, and this aerial bombardment marked only the beginning. Warsaw would later get further devastated due to the Jewish and Warsaw Uprising. This was actually one of the first historical blogs I wrote about back in 2009 after watching the Pianist (The Ruins of Warsaw). 

Bombing of Rotterdam

Date: May 14, 1940

Bombers: German Luftwaffe (97 tons of explosives)

Death Toll: 1,150

Structural Damage: 100% of historic city center (Old Town Hall, Delft Gate, De Groote Schouwburg Theatre, Plan C Business Complex, 24 churches) 

Significance: The Nazis began their invasion of the Netherlands on May 10th, and used this aerial bombardment to affect morale. The entire attack on Rotterdam unfolded in 15 minutes with total devastation to the city's historical center. The older buildings quickly went up in flames, which caused a firestorm throughout the city. Nearly 80,000 people were left homeless. The entire medieval center of the city was completely destroyed by the bombardment. The Nazis used this blitz as a warning to other cities and nations across Europe. The Netherlands quickly capitulated that evening of the bombing to Nazi control. While the municipal region of the city survived, it's old town district was completely devastated and could not be restored.  

The Blitz

Date: September 7, 1940- 11 May 1941

Bombers: German Luftwaffe (30,000 tons of explosives)

Death Toll: 43,000

Structural Damage: 2 million houses destroyed; complete destruction of the House of Commons Chambers, the Coventry Cathedral 

Significance: Following it's inability to gain air superiority against the Royal Air Force at the Battle of Britain, the German Luftwaffe began this campaign. It was primarily targeted over London to affect civilian morale the same way it had done for Poland and Morale. The campaign began with 57 consecutive nights of bombings, and continued on for a total of 8 months. A great firestorm broke out across London in December of 1940. London, Liverpool, Birmingham, Covetry, Plymouth, Glasgow, Belfast, Bristol, and Portsmouth were all targeted with heavy destruction. This was of course Winston Churchill's finest hour where he instilled resilience amongst the British people, "to stay calm and carry on". He oversaw the development of great resistance such as warning radars, bomb shelters, firefighters, barrage balloons, electrical blackouts, and "no-surrender" propaganda. It became a strategic failure for the Nazis who were forced to withdraw their assault to focus on the Soviet Union. Despite terrible civilian causalities and destruction, Britain became the first nation in Europe during WWII, to repel the Nazi aggression.  

Bombing of Belgrade

Date: April 6-7 1941 by Germans; Sept 6, 1944 by Allies

Bombers: German Luftwaffe, US Air Force

Death Toll: 4000-17,000

Structural Damage: 714 buildings completely destroyed, nearly half of Belgrades overall residential space was damaged. The National Library of Serbia and the Old Palace was severely damaged. 

Significance: This attack was coordinated by the Nazis in response to the Yugoslav coup d'état which ousted the Nazi sympathizing leadership. The bombardment of Belgrade was part of the Nazi's ground invasion of Yugoslavia. The bombing occurred in various waves over 2 to 3 days, with approximately 334 German aircraft and 365 tons of explosives. Estimates range from 4000 to 17,000 civilian deaths, which brutally affected their command center as well as their moral. The National Library of Serbia was completely destroyed, which housed many historical medieval writings. The city was once again bombed in 1944 by the allies this time, who sought to push the Nazis out of the occupied territory. Approximately 4,000 more civilians were killed in this bombing as well as 1,000 more buildings, which included hospitals. Approximately half of the city was completely destroyed during the war by both German and American bombings.

Bombing of Kharkov

Date: Oct 20 1941-Aug 1943

Bombers: German Luftwaffe

Death Toll: 10,000-15,000

Structural Damage: 70% of buildings

Significance: Following their victory at the Battle of Keiv, the Nazi army pushed thru Ukraine and waged an all out aerial assault on Kharkov before sending in ground troops. This was a major industrial hub for the USSR and thus a significant target for the Nazis. What especially made this city devastated is that it was the staging ground for 4 battles during WWII. The Nazis took the city in October 1941, were able to repel the Soviets twice in May 1942 and Feb 1943, and finally lost the city in August 1943. It's important to mention that the Soviet also conducted air-raids in 1943 against the Nazis which also killed many of their own civilians.  

Bombing of Leningrad

Date: Sept 1941 to January 1944

Bombers: German Luftwaffe (5000-6000 tons of explosives)

Death Toll: 5,000-6,000 (by air-raid)

Structural Damage: 35% of city destroyed (2000 buildings destroyed)

Significance: This Nazi siege went on for 872 days against the old Russian jewel of St. Peterburg. It was actually more of an artillery bombardment, than an air-raid. It is considered one of the most destructive sieges in history with a total of 1.5 million civilian deaths. This ranges from air-raids, artillery bombardment, starvation, but also civilians caught in the cross-fire. Many of the cities industrial hubs were targeted such as the Badaev Warehouse which was the city's main food supply. However despite this terrible devastation the city was unusually resilient and carried on similar to the British during their Blitz in 1940. Factories continued to produce, despite hungry workers and buildings without roofs. Supply lines poured in from the frozen Lake Ladoga considered the Road of Death. People still attended social functions, most notably was Dimitri Shostakovich's public concerto of the Seventh Symphony during bombardment. Thankfully many of the iconic buildings survived the destruction such as the Winte rPalace and St. Isaac's Cathedral. 

Bombing of Stalingrad

Date: August 23, 1942

Bombers: German Luftwaffe (1 million bombs, 1000 tons of explosives)

Death Toll: 40,000-70,000

Structural Damage: 90% of the city's residential buildings. Devasting destruction to historical sites such as the Grudinin Mill, Pavlov's House, and the Barmaley Fountain

Significance: The aerial bombardment over Stalingrad marked the initial beginning of the deadliest battle not only in WWII but in human history. The Luftwaffe was able to establish air superiority by early August, and began their devastating bombardment.  On August 23, 1600 Luftwaffe aircrafts dropped 1000 tons of explosives on the city in a single day. This completely leveled the city to rubble, which in turn the Soviet Red Army was able to use as barricades. Stalin refused to evacuate the city due to it's important in name but also military production. The Nazi airstrikes continued for several weeks after this which created a continuous firestorm and thick black smoke over the city. The Soviets were able to endure the bombardment, and use the destruction in their favor during the ensuing urban ground battle. Aside from causing high causalities, this once again became a Nazi tactical failure. They were unable to mount a proper ground assault into the city, unable to use their artillery, and became easy targets for Soviet soldiers taking cover behind the rubble. Stalin also used the bombardment of civilians as a rally cry to fight against this enemy at all costs. It ultimately turned to the Soviets favor which led to their counterattack, and the beginning of the end for the Nazi army.  

Allied Bombings

Bombing of Naples

Date: 1940-1944

Bombers: Royal Air Force and US Air Force

Death Toll: 20,000- 25,000

Structural Damage: Approximately 10,000 homes, 50,000 buildings, and 40 churches were destroyed

Significance: This was the most targeted city of Fascist Italy due to it's strategic position and military production. It was the busiest port in the Mediterranean, the center of Italy's Navy fleet, as well as a major rail supply region. It also had many industrial and petroleum facilities that were aiding the Axis military machine. The Allies performed approximately 200 air raids from 1940-1944. The peak of the assaults came in 1943, primarily on August 4th where 400 US bombers struck in one day. Many historical buildings were devastated such as the Church of Santa Chiara, the Palazzo delle Poste, the Santa Maria di Loreto hospital. This assault led to the Italian resistance known as the Four Days of Naples which eventually ousted Benito Mussolini from power. However in response to this coup d'état the Nazis continued their own bombardment of the city.     

Bombing of Kassel

Date: 1942-1945

Bombers: Royal Air Force (40 air raids)

Death Toll: 6,000-10,000

Structural Damage: 69% of the city was destroyed. 

Significance: The Royal Air Force began conducting many air raids across Germany throughout the war and chose the city of Kassel as a target for it's industrial production. The bombing campaign over Kassel consisted of 40 air raids that targeted the city's industrial productions of aircrafts, tanks, locomotives, engines, motors, and railways. This was especially a significant zone of interest for the allies as the producers of the Nazi's infamous tiger tanks. The heaviest raid occurred on October 23, 1943 where the RAF dropped 1800 tons of explosives causing a massive firestorm throughout the city. The bombing destroyed much of the city's historical center and left 150,000 people homeless. 

Bombing of Essen

Date: 1942-1945

Bombers: RAF (272 air raids, 40,000 tons of explosives)

Death Toll: 6,500-14,500

Structural Damage: 90% of the inner city destroyed; 60% of the outer district

Significance: This aerial bombardment by the Allied forces was part of the Battle of the Ruhr. Essen was an obvious target for the allies, since the city was headquarters to the Krupp Steelworks and Armament Works which produced most of the Nazi's weapons. The city became one of the most heaviest bombed during the war, with 272 air raids, and a total of 40,000 tons of explosives dropped on it. The city was renown for it's air defense, decoy, and camouflage which made it difficult for the RAF to locate their targets. The heaviest day of bombing occurred on March 11, 1945 where most damage and causalities were inflicted on the city. Approximately 100,000 houses were destroyed and 50,000 made homeless.    

Bombing of Hamburg

Date: July-August 1943

Bombers: Royal Air Force and US Air Force (9000 tons of explosives)

Death Toll: 34,000-45,000

Structural Damage: Nearly 56% of the city was completely destroyed. 227,330 houses, 436 public buildings, 580 factories, 24 hospitals, and 58 schools. The Gothic Cathedral of St. Nicholas was destroyed. 

Significance: Codenamed Operation Gomorrah it was a major target for the allies due to Hamburg's industrial production of shipyards, armaments, and oil refineries. The 8 day bombardment of this city caused one of the worse European firestorms of the war. The allies carefully planned the bombardment and their targets during a drought period, where the region was very flammable. The incendiaries broke into a firestorm of devastating whirlwinds which killed most civilians not by the flames but by asphyxiation from the heavy smoke. Nearly one million people were left homeless after the bombardment. The iconic Gothic cathedral of St. Nicholas (built in 1195) was so badly ruined that it could not be revived and was rather turned into a memorial. 

Bombing of Dortmund

Date: 1943-1945

Bombers: Royal Air Force (22,242 tons of explosives)

Death Toll: 6,341

Structural Damage: 70% to 90% of the city was destroyed

Significance: The Royal Air Force had established it's air superiority after the Battle of Britain and then began frequent aerial bombardments across Germany. They frequently targeted the city of Dortmund due to it's industrial output of coal and steel aiding the Nazi army. The RAF conducted 105 air raids from 1943-1945 destroying nearly 90% of the city, leaving 130,000 homeless. The most devastating bombardment occurred on March 12, 1945 where 4,851 tons were dropped in a single day, making it the largest single air bombing throughout the entire war. This raid alone caused the majority of the destruction of Dortmund, which included many historical buildings such as their Old Town Hall (1241) and St. Reinold's Church (1270).  

Bombing of Darmstadt

Date: 1943-1945

Bombers: Royal Air Force

Death Toll: 11,500-12,300

Structural Damage: 78% of the city was destroyed

Significance: This city was targeted various times by the RAF for it's industrial production of chemicals and communication networks. The most significant of these assaults occurred on September 11-12, 1944 where 240 RAF aircraft firebombed the city. One of the major targets was the old historic center, that consisted of wooden buildings and would thus be easily flammable. Due to it's firestorm tactics this assault is often considered more of a terror bombing than a tactical one, to inflict damage on the enemy's morale. Much of the city's medieval core was completely destroyed as well as other historical buildings such as the Old City Hall, The Ducal Palace, the City Church, and the Hessian State Library where 760,000 writings of cultural heritage were loss. 

Bombing of Dresden

Date: February 13-15, 1945

Bombers: Royal Air Force and US Air Force (1300 heavy bombers, 3900 tons of explosives)

Death Toll: 25,000

Structural Damage: Over 90% of the city was destroyed which included 220,000 homes and the ruin of it's historical district known as the Altstadt.  

Significance: It is considered the most infamous and controversial allied bombings against Germany. That is because it happened towards the final months of the war, where most of Nazi Germany was in total collapse. Furthermore the city itself was considered an architectural jewel of Europe, with a beauty to match Paris or Rome. It was known as the Florence of the Elbe, an artistic and cultural hub, rooted in German/Baroque style. Thus the bombing of this city not only lacked tactical importance, but also could have been seen as a preservation society. Furthermore the manner of the bombardment was a devastating firebombing, similar to Hamburg, that caused widespread civilian causalities. The Allies however claimed the city was still contributing to Germany's "Total war" effort thru military supply production, as well as necessary to break their morale. Nonetheless it is considered mostly as "terror bombing" on par with the bombings of Japan, not to gain any tactical advantage, rather destroy the civilians' morale. The cultural destruction of Dresden included the iconic Fruenkirche (1726), The Zwinger Palace Complex (1728), The Semperoper Opera House (1841), Dresden Castle (1200), Dresden Cathedral (1751), the Sophienkirche, St. Sophia's Church (1250), and the Kaiserpalast building (1895).2     

Bombing of Pforzheim

Date: February 23, 1945 

Bombers: Royal Air Force (379 aircrafts, 1825 tons of explosives)

Death Toll: 17,600 

Structural Damage: 83% of the city destroyed.  

Significance: This is one of the big three German cities that were completely devastated by allied firebombing (alongside Dresden and Hamburg). This city was considered a target by the allies due to it's production of precision tools, as well as a major transportation hub. However it was also targeted as a moral killer, similar to Hamburg and Dresden. The allies knew the city's older buildings would be easily flammable, which would make for a successful attack. A terrible firestorm broke out after just 10 minutes which quickly consumed most of the city. Nearly 83% of the city was completely destroyed as well as killing 17,600 civilians (31% of the population). Many medieval churches, bridges, town squares, schools, and historical buildings were completely ruined.     

Bombing of Cologne

Date: 1940-1945

Bombers: Royal Air Force (35,000 tons of explosives)

Death Toll: 20,000

Structural Damage: 90% of the city destroyed 

Significance: The city was targeted by the Royal Air Force early on during the war due to it's military production but also for morale. The RAF conducted 262 air raids, dropping 35,000 tons of explosives over the city. On May 1942, the RAF dropped it's heaviest payload on the city, 1500 tons of firebombs, during Operation Millennium which caused mass devastation. The city became one of the first and most frequently bombed throughout the war. It was seen as a staging ground for RAF bombing tactics as well as propaganda to boost British morale. The destruction on the city was devastating including it's old town historical district. Many iconic churches, bridges, and public buildings were destroyed such as the Great St. Martin Church (960 AD). Surprisingly however the Cathedral of Cologne survived the bombardment even after getting hit by nearly 80 bombs. 

Bombing of Berlin

Date: 1940-1945

Bombers: Royal Air Force, US Air Force, and Soviet Red Air Force 

Death Toll: 20,000-50,000

Structural Damage: 80% of the city was completely ruined including historical sits such as the Reich Cahncellery, the Monbijou Palace (1706), the Prinz-Albrecht-Palais, and the Kroll Opera House (1844). 

Significance: Throughout the war approximately 363 air raids were conducted by the allies on the capital city of Berlin, Germany. While still causing high civilian causalities and structural destruction, I find this one to be less controversial then the other German cities. This was after all the Nazi headquarters, where Hitler himself had taken refuge underground, declaring to fight to the end. The early sporadic raids from 1940-1943 demonstrated British air superiority over the Luftwaffe which made Herman Goring lose favor with Hitler. In November 1943, the Royal Air Force launched a major aerial assault on the city intending to destroy German morale. However the outcome was the same as the British Blitz, where German morale was able to endure the bombardment and the attack was called off. The final phases of bombardment began in early 1945 as the allies got closer to Berlin. This was a mixture of the US Air Force, Royal Air Force, and Soviet Air Force bombardment in preparation for their ground assault. The deadliest of these bombardments occurred on February 3, 1945 where the US air force dropped high explosives over the city causing nearly 25,000 causalities. The city was turned to complete rubble, and similar to Stalingrad the German soldiers used the rubble as a barricade. This became the Germans' final stance where civilians and children were forced to fight in the streets against the Red Army. However they were heavily outnumbered and eventually forced to surrender shortly after Hitler's death. Many iconic buildings were destroyed during the final Battle of Berlin such as the Berlin Palace (1433) and the landmark Berlin Cathedral (1451). Much of the damage and bullet holes were left intact, such as the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church (1891) as a reminder of the brutality of war.   

Other cities devastated by Nazi Air Bombings

Ukraine

• Odessa (3000-5000 killed) 15% destruction
• Kiev (2000-3000 killed)
• Sevastopol (1000-1500 killed) 75% destruction

Russia

• Rostov-on-Don (5000-7000 killed) 50% destruction
• Moscow (2000 killed)
• Smolensk (1000 killed)
• Tula (1000 killed)

Eastern Europe

• Sofia, Bulgaria (1000 killed)
• Belostok, Poland (1000 killed)
  
• Minsk, Belarus (1000 killed)
• Vilnius, Lithuania (1000 killed)

Other cities devastated by Allied Air Bombings

France (60,000 killed)

• Le Havre. (5700 killed). 80% city destroyed.
  
• Caen (3000 killed) 70% city destroyed.
• Rouen (2000 killed) 
• Marseille (2000 killed)
• Nantes (1500 killed)
• Brest (1500 killed)
• Saint-Nazaire (1500 killed) 85% city destroyed
• Royan (2700 killed) 95% destroyed
• Saint-Lo (1500 killed). 95% city destroyed

Italy (65,000 killed)

• 
  Rome. (3000-5000 killed). 10% city destroyed. 
• Ancona.  (2782 killed). 67% city destroyed
• Pisa.(2500 killed). 48% city destroyed
• Cagliari. (1000 killed). 75% city destroyed.
• Treviso (1470 killed). 
• Pescara (2200-3900 killed). 80% destroyed. 
• Milan (2,200 killed) 40% destroyed
• Genoa (2200 killed) 40% destroyed
• Bologna (2400 killed). 30-40% destroyed
• Turin (2000-2500 killed). 40% destroyed

Other European Cities (25,000 killed)

• Sofia, Bulgaria. (4000-5000 killed). 25% city destroyed.
• Bucharest, Romania. (4000 killed). 30% city destroyed. 
• Ploiesti, Romania (3000-4000 killed). 
• Budapest, Hungary (2500-3000 killed). 20% city destroyed.

Germany (450,000 killed) 

• Frankfurt (5000-6000 killed). 52% destroyed.
• Leipzig (6000 killed). 20% destroyed
• Munich (6000-7000 killed). 42% destroyed
• Bochum (4000-5000 killed). 83% destroyed
• Bremen (4000-5000 killed). 62% destroyed
  
• Chemnitz (4000-5000 killed). 41% destroyed
• Duisburg (4000-4500 killed). 48% destroyed.
• Hanover (6000-7000 killed). 60% destroyed
• Kiel (4000-5000 killed). 50% destroyed
• Mainz (2000-3000 killed). 80% destroyed
• Magdeburg (4000-5000 killed). 41% destroyed
• Nuremberg (6000-7000 killed). 51% destroyed
• Stuttgart (4500-5000 killed). 46% destroyed

Political Study: Nazism

So now moving to the crux of far-right politics, is the branch of fascism known as Nazism. While Italy can be regarded as the fathers of fascism, it was Nazi Germany who turned it into a force to be reckoned with. Throughout the 1920s-1930s, Adolf Hitler established this new form of political ideology that was an offshoot of fascism. While his vision would still have the same totalitarian structure, the key difference between Italian fascism and Nazism would be the racial component. One of the major driving forces of the Nazi ideology was it's belief in a master Aryan race. Furthermore it considered other races, most notably Jews and Slavs to be sub-humans which drove many of their genocide atrocities. 

I want to dive into all the unique components of this ideology purely from an academic stance. Once again what especially interests me is how this ideology quickly caught on and completely transformed an entire nation. Furthermore the nation of Nazi Germany actually thrived economically for a brief period during the 1930s. They hosted the Olympics in 1936 and in 1938 they were the 3rd largest economy in the world behind the United States and the Soviet Union. Of course this was all short-lived after they declared war on all of Europe and began mass genocides. 

I think first it's important to establish the roots of this ideology. This notion of German nationalism, Aryan superiority, and antisemitism did not start with Hitler. It was actually present during the German Empire of 1871-1918 under Kaiser Wilhelm II who established a thriving authoritarian/militarized state. The hostility towards the Jews was widespread throughout Europe, thru much of history. This extreme hateful ideology really caught fire after Germany's defeat in WWI. Germany was faced with heavy repercussions for instigating the war which caused much political resentment. So it's fair to say while the roots were there, the movement of Nazism did not properly get started until after WWI. 

German Nationalism

The driving force of a fascist regime is the empowerment and expansion of the nation. In the case of Nazism it started back in the mid 1800s, with the notion of Pan-Germanism. This eventually led to the German Revolution of 1848 by the German Confederation. They sought to re-unite all German states throughout Europe into one national identity. This included all nations with German heritage such as Belgium, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, and the Baltic States. The basis of this ideal came from the Holy Roman Empire that ruled much of central Europe during the middle ages, which the Nazis considered the 1st Reich. 

The ideals of the German Revolution eventually took hold by the 1870s when Germany re-established itself as a world super-power under Otto von Bismark. This vision became reality with the Unification of Germany in 1876, where Prussia became a part of the German Empire. This quickly became a booming nation of industry, technology, and military that was beginning to reshape the world balance of power. This is why the Nazis consider it the 2nd Reich. However the German Empire did display some warning signs of aggressive foreign policy seeking to expand their territory. It was due to this ambitious desire to be a world power, that WWI broke out, and Germany received much of the blame. 

The notion of Pan-Germanism once again became a patriotic rally cry for Germans after the devastating Treaty of Versailles, 1919. Much of it's territory was pealed back as a consequence for losing WWI (such as parts of France, Denmark, Poland, and Lithuania). The Austria-Hungarian empire was also split up as a result of the war which led to a German leaning Austria. This further strengthened the cause of pan-Germanism to reunify the central lands into a Greater Germany. This was essentially the driving force of the Nazis who sought to restore a new powerful nation in central Europe with German pride. 

The Nazis saw this form of proud nationalism as a way to unite the people into a superior race and weed out the ethnic races. This concept was known as the Volksgemeinschaft "National Community" which sought to eliminate any class struggle. Everyone is expected to do their duty and work together harmoniously for the good of the nation. Free thought and intellectualism was rejected as liberal ideals and the Nazis held mass book burnings. While it likely came off as a radical revolution, it was more so a conservative movement to restore Germany back to it's roots. The Nazis intended to first strengthen their nation from within and then expand eastward to establish a new powerful empire known as the Third Reich 

Racial Superiority

One of the defining features of Nazi rhetoric was their hateful racial theory, which consider the Aryan race superior to all. This form of scientific race theory became prevalent during the mid 1800s following Darwin's theory of evolution. Theorists such as Arthur de Gobineau, Houston Chamberlain, and Hans FK Gunther developed the earliest model of a racial hierarchy which would later influence Hitler and the Nazis. These theorists considered the white races of Aryan or Nordic descent to be superior to everyone else. This gave way to the Volkisch Movement in Germany by the early 1900s which sought to cleanse the nation of foreign races.

The slogan of the Volkisch Movement was "blood and soil", a desire to return to their native German roots. The Nazis eventually incorporated these ideals into their greater scheme of racial superiority for Germany. They felt the white race was a superior master race over darker-toned, eastern, Asian, Romani, Slavs, and especially Jewish races. They also considered homosexuals, disabled people, and any political opponents as inferior. However this theory was full of contradictions as most Slavs, Jews, and eastern people were still white. Furthermore they welcomed darker-toned ethnic groups such as the Italians, Greeks, and Japanese into their master race (simply because of their political alliance). This notion of racial superiority became the backbone of Nazi ideology and especially the catalyst for their antisemitic agenda.     

Antisemitism

The discrimination towards the Jewish people has been around since the biblical age, and has seen many terrible instances throughout the history. In ancient history they were persecuted by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. The earliest pogroms occurred in Alexandria, Egypt from 38-117 BC due to political tensions with the Romans. The Jewish revolt of 70 AD, caused the destruction of the second temple by the Romans and the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. The Christians then took a harsh stance against Judaism by declaring them responsible for the crucifixion of Jesus. This notion became the backbone of the Christian inquisitions throughout the middle ages. 

Germany likely established it's antisemitic roots from the protestant reformist Martin Luther and his harsh antisemitic writing, On the Jews and Their Lies (1543). Antisemitism really began to escalate in the 20th century beginning with Russian Pogroms which blamed Jews for the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion was published in 1903 as a false document that revealed a Jewish conspiracy for world domination. Also new racial theories began to emerge throughout the later 1800s which considered the Jews as an inferior race based on their biological genetics. 

This fervor especially took off throughout Germany after WWI, when the nation needed a scapegoat. New far-right movements and societies began to accuse the Jews as the primary cause to their defeat in WWI. They considered the Jews as enemies of the state for their selfish greed, moral corruption, and sympathy towards Communism. This racial rhetoric became the backbone of the Nazi Party which sought to identify themselves as the pure Aryan race of Germany that intended to clear out the ethnic assimilation, primarily the Jews. Once Hitler took power in 1933, new harsh laws were passed to persecute the Jews. They were eventually moved into ghettos and then tragically deported to concentration and extermination camps during the Holocaust. 

Anti-communism

The Nazis disliked the free market system of capitalism which enabled global trade more then nationalized trade. However they still sought to empower the wealthy, thru separate classes that all contributed to the nation. Therefore they perceived the notion of a class struggle to be very damaging to the nation, and thus detested the practice of communism. This Marxist ideal sought to spread it's ideology globally across Europe and into America (whereas the Nazis saw their Fascist society as strictly for the nation of Germany). Ultimately communism is seen as an enlightened liberal ideal of revolution while Fascism was seen as a conservative restoration of old tradition and order. 

Furthermore the Communist revolution was often associated with anarchy and what were deemed as "Jewish" immoral principles. Afterall one of the key leading figures of the Russian Bolshevik Party, Leon Trotsky, was Jewish. This was a big reason the Nazis felt the Jews associated with Communism and sought to sabotage their nation internally. From 1918-1919 German underwent various failed Communist revolutions and uprisings which enhanced the anti-communist rhetoric. During the Nazis rise to power they used their paramilitary to purge Communist leaders thru political violence. In 1933 Hitler was able to coordinate his final blow against the German-Communist party by blaming them for the Reichstag Fire. With the arrest of nearly 4000 Communist officials, Hitler was able to officially establish his dictatorship. The propaganda of anti-communism and antisemitism continued to be fed to the public as an incentive to later invade the Soviet Union.       

The Fuhrer Principle

Similar to Fascist Italy or Communist Russia, Nazi Germany established a totalitarian government where there was one sole leader (almost like a king or a shogun). This sole leader, known as a dictator, had absolute authority over all components of the government. Hitler was seen as the "Fuhrerprinzip" the Leader Principle at the top of the pyramid. There was to be no questioning of his will thru any bureaucratic system of checks-and-balances. While Hitler still had many top advisors and chief directors overseeing various departments, they all swore total devotion to his direction. Hitler oversaw every aspect of the government, including the military strategy. 

Furthermore Hitler embodied a cult of personality, where the public revered him as a divine persona. This was first achieved by Hitler's passionate charisma and speeches that essentially brought him to power. But even more-so his image was glorified thru propaganda as a supreme heroic leader of mythological qualities. Every public office, school, or institution had an image of Adolf Hitler on their wall as if it were some sort of crucifix or religious relic. The phrase "Heil Hitler" became a common cry of national pride accompanied by the iconic Nazi salute. The youth and naive were especially brainwashed to buy in to this image of Hitler as their Germanic messiah. 

Militarism and Expansionism

A major part of the Nazi's long-term plan was to expand their nation into an empire which would provide more living space and resources. This concept was known as "Lebensraum" and fell in line with the old German question of reuniting their territory as they once did during the Holy Roman Empire and the German Empire. Hitler first intended to regain the territory that was lost in WWI Treaty of Versailles (such as Austria, the Sudetenland of Czechoslovikia, parts of Poland, and southern Germany). He then intended to acquire new eastern lands thru military invasion such as Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic States, and Russia.   

In order to achieve this conquest, militarism became the most important industry of Nazi Germany. This served multiple purposes as it boosted the nation's economy and lifted the nation's moral. To serve for the military was considered a great duty of service and honor towards one's nation. The expansionism sentiment was at it's height when Nazi Germany easily acquired Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938. Their eastern invasion of Poland in 1939 marked the beginning of WWI and a declaration of war by France and Britain. 

Nazi Germany did not originally intend to occupy the western lands, however needed to do so in order to secure it's western flank. Throughout 1939-1940 it easily swept thru the Lowlands, Scandanavia, and into France in what was known as their blitzkrieg. The acquisitions of these territories further strengthened Nazi resolve, that is until they met strong opposition against the British. Hitler decided to abandon their campaign against the British since they did not have air or navy superiority. By the summer of 1941 he initiated his early promise to lay claim to the eastern lands with a total invasion of the Soviet Union. This of course became the turning point and downfall for the Nazi Regime, as the nation was just to large to conquer. 

Occultism

One of the more interesting elements of the Nazi ideology was this fascination with occultism. This is often a common theme in Hollywood movies such as Indiana Jones or Captain America, where the Nazis are in search of some ancient magical relic. In truth the Nazis did have several societies who bought into a form of supernatural mysticism. The most prominent of these organizations was the Thule Society, who sought to link the old German mythological and pagan practices with new ideals of racial theory. This new school of thought, known as Ariosophy, was essentially a branch of racial Aryan theory that brought in mystical elements.

The Nazis incorporated many of these occultist symbols into their propaganda such as the use of swastika, or an emphasis on ancient runes. Their purpose was to link their new Aryan vision as a call from the Germanic gods and legends of old. It was not just the Fuhrer yet rather the German people "the volk" who were to sense this chosen mythical superiority.  Many of the Nazi rallies had pagan elements such as ritualistic ceremonies, solstices, bonfires, torches, and candles which sought to distance itself from Christianity and create a new form of worship. They even practiced astrology and divination as a means for inner strength guidance.  

Rudolf Hess and Alfred Rosenberg were both prominent supporters of this racial-mystical element, however none compared to Henrich Himmler. The SS commander, saw this occultist practice  as a new form of mystical religion. He thought of Christianity as too weak, forgiving, and accepting of the Jewish people. He intended for his SS to not just be a paramilitary force but to be seen as an order of Teutonic Knights. This symbolism was further enhanced thru use of runes and sacred initiation ceremonies. The medieval Wewelsburg Castle was chosen by Himmler as the SS headquarters, to embody this mystical element.  

Himmler also established a scientific department, known as the Ahnenerbe, whose sole purpose was to provide scientific proof of their Aryan supremacy. They conducted various expeditions seeking to find the origins of the Aryan race and the lost mythical land of Thule. They considered the witch trials as an unjustifiable hunt by Christians to root out paganism. They even conducted medical experiments on different races to prove their biological physical theories. This was all the beginning of a very dark religion, driven by pure hatred. This practice essentially sought to replace Christianity with a new form of satanic pagan worship, with Hitler as their new demonic messiah. 

Political Study: Fascism

I always enjoyed talking politics in college, and started to really dive deeper during my time in Chicago 2008. It was then that I began to understand the true difference between a republican and a democrat or the far-right and far-left ideologies. At the end of the day it boils down to one major factor; the government's role in the distribution of wealth. The far-left would favor a classless society where the government controls all components of the wealth distribution in a more balanced approach. Whereas the far right would favor a capitalist society with zero government intervention to allow for complete free trade, thus creating a society of classes. However the exception to these economic approaches is the ideology of fascism, which almost incorporates communist and capitalist ideals.

The key component of fascism is a totalitarian regime, where one single ideology controls the government. This does away with a democratic system of elections or checks-and-balances, rather a complete authoritarian approach to governmental affairs. It is a practice of nationalism, where individual liberties are set aside for the good of the nation. The economy allows for some free trade, but it is ultimately controlled by the government. However it is also very against the communist ideals of class struggle, and rather puts heavy emphasis on private property and a social hierarchy. This totalitarian state is achieved thru political violence, censorship, and propaganda to impose their will upon the people. 

The key element of a fascist government is their supreme leader, referred to as a dictator. The role of the dictator is far more privileged than that of a president, almost on par with a king or an emperor. It's his vision and decisions that drive the course of the nation. This was certainly the case for fascist Italy under Mussolini, fascist Spain under Francisco Franco, and fascist Germany under Adolf Hitler. However Germany's fascist ideology had a heavy component of racism and is thus considered it's own form of political ideology known as Nazism. I intend to dive deeper into the ideology of Nazism, as that was without question the most influential fascist government. But first I want to cover the history and distinguishing components of fascism. I touched upon this in 2012, but that was more of a focus on Mussolini's Rise to Power rather then the political ideology (see Rise of Italian Fascism)

 

Origins of Fascism

Throughout the 1800s to early 1900s the monarchy system had begun to collapse and was being replaced by federal democracy. The United States was the first government to establish a true democracy free from one single leader. On the flip side the French Revolution demonstrated early examples of a totalitarian state with militarism and political purging lead by their leader Napoleon. However it wasn't until WWI that the ideologies of totalitarianism were put into effect as many empires and monarchies began to collapse. The first nation to develop a true totalitarian structure was the Soviet Union, thru their Communist Revolution in 1917. Italy became the first Fascist totalitarian state in 1925, and can be considered the true origins of fascism.

The term "fascism" came from a nationalist movement within Italy to join World War I as a way to strengthen their influence. It's image was a fasces bundle of wood and an axe which represented the power of the law. Benito Mussolini was a key figure in this movement and established the League of Revolutionary Action in 1914. This notion of national socialism began to gain traction throughout the war. It essentially rejected the ideas of the French Revolution such as liberty and individualism in place of duty to one's nation. After the war, Mussolini's party transformed into the Italian Fasces of Combat and eventually the National Fascist Party by 1921. Germany also established their own national socialist party in 1919 known as the German Worker's Party. Both political parties held similar ideals of national pride while rejecting communism. 

The first official fascist manifesto was written by Alceste de Ambris and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in 1919. It was published in the Italian newspapers and displayed their ideas of national syndicalism, militarism, and futurism. However this manifesto was still a bit on the left-leaning side trying to appeal to universal suffrage and the working class. By 1922 Mussolini seized power of Italy and began to put some of these ideas to practice, such as state-police. However he eventually revised the manifesto to empower the wealthy in the 1932 Doctrine of Fascism. This can be seen as the definitive fascist manifesto with it's far-right ideology that supports free trade in a totalitarian controlled state. So surprisingly it's fair to say that it was Mussolini and not Hitler who is regarded as the founder of fascism. 

Political Components

At it's core definition fascism is the empowerment of the nation. It puts the nation above everything else, including individual rights. It is the utmost practice of patriotism where the nation is united into one political party that shares a common goal for the betterment of the nation. In order to achieve this unified state of nationalism, the government is structured into one of totalitarianism (where the state holds complete influence over it's people). It is ruled by a a single dictator, who has supreme power over all, and portrays a divine cult of personality. The dictator is able to maintain total control of the government thru it's paramilitary institution. All components of the government run thru the dictator and fall in line with Fascist party ideology. 

Another key element of their government is a high emphasis on militarism. This way the government can control the population thru fear and violence as needed. They also use the military as a positive form of propaganda, to embed cultural values of duty, discipline, and honor (as if glorifying war). This war mongering agenda served as a rally cry to continuously strengthen the nation's people. It is also a necessary tool for expansionism which is another important element of fascism. Both Italy and Germany sought to not only regain lost territories but conquer new territory throughout Europe to expand their nations into empires. 

Economic Components

The key distinction of a fascist versus communist government is the role they play in the economy. Fascists supported the ideal of corporatism, which still empowered the wealthy and sought to eliminate class conflict. Labor unions and strikes were driven out and replaced by syndicates that supported the corporate interest. Therefore business owners could still maintain their lands and profits as long as they adhered to the state's political direction. It was a form of authoritarian capitalism, like a partnership between the private and public sectors. Whereas a communist government was completely against free trade, controlled all industry, and made all social classes equal regardless of skill or talent. 

Another key component of the fascist economy was a nationalized industry, where the majority of trade and production was done within the state. This form of economic self-sufficiency (also known as autarky) sought to eliminate the need for foreign resources. High tariffs were put in place to discourage foreign exchange of imports. The state also put heavy emphasis on their infrastructure (roads, railways, buildings, etc) which boosted employment. Their main industry became their war machine, strengthening their military thru new armament production and facilities. The fascist ideal of expansionism was a necessary economy component to increase their national resources. This was ultimately achieved with their priority on military production. 

Social Components

The final key element of the fascist revolution was the complete overhaul of social values. This to me is always the most interesting piece, where an entire society can somehow get behind a political ideal as they did for Italy and Germany during the 1930s. This was ultimately achieved thru a very charismatic leader such as Mussolini or Hitler that established a cult of personality. Thru passionate oratory and propaganda this head-of-state quickly became a heroic idol among the people. The population was also influenced by the paramilitary who simply used "bully tactics" to coerce their agenda among the people. Thru heavy propaganda and the use of political violence the state is able to clearly send out their message to fall-in-line or get out. 

The public's role in a fascist government is vital and required for the production and advancement of the nation. This new ideal is heavily influenced by the government thru propaganda and new education. One of the key elements is that individual liberties such as freedom of speech, press, or assembly are abolished. Everything must be done for the betterment of the nation. Weakness is discouraged thru social Darwinism where only the strong shall survive. Strength, honor, duty, and national pride are encouraged among the people (especially by joining the paramilitary or the army). 

Traditional gender roles sought to replace feminism, by encouraging large families where the man went to work or war while the woman cared for the family. The youth was the vital cornerstone in developing a new society of national pride for the future. Education was completely reformed to promote all Fascist ideals. The people were expected to admire their national heritage (whether that be the glory of Rome or their Catholic faith) yet also welcome this age of rebirth. Modernism and technology were seen as crucial movements towards a more efficient nation. It was essentially a complete overhaul of society, that underwent a brief cultural renaissance, before burning in a firestorm. 

Historical Study: Hitler's Inner Circle

I've been thru countless WWII phases from so many different aspects. I just recently finished up another dive into the Pacific War, from the Japanese perspective. I really had no intention whatsoever of returning to this topic, until I watched the 2004 German film Downfall directed by Oliver Hirschbiegel. I've seen the film a number of times now, but this time it especially hit a core of interest. I enjoy the raw depiction of Hitler's final days in his bunker, and the crumbling defeat of Nazi Germany. The film has climbed the ranks, and should easily make the top 50 in my next revision to the list. I also intend to someday read the firsthand accounts of secretary Traudl Junge who was there as it all unfolded. I would go as far as to say this film provides the most vivid depiction of WWII on par with Saving Private Ryan, Schindler's List, and the Pianist. 

I think it was shortly after college, whilst living with my parents, that I first got intrigued by the rise of Nazi Germany. Most of our lives as students we are given the American perspective, but for one I was curious to see the Germany perspective (purely from an academic stance). What most intrigued me about the rise of Hitler, is how an entire nation could buy into this wicked ideology of fascism. These were a maniacal group of extremists, (quite similar to the Japanese mindset I have recently studied),where they were proudly willing to die for their ideology. Racism was at the core of their belief, where they felt a widespread sense of white "Aryan" supremacy and especially antisemitism. And while the Jews took on the brunt of the persecution, it's important to note that anyone who was not purely of white race was to be condemned. 

I can't help but see some similarities in today's administration in regards to racial tensions, censorship, secret state police, and a new sense of authoritarianism. It's no doubt becoming a scary time, maybe even more so since I recently got laid off, and thus perhaps the pull to this historical period. I've already written a few posts about German History, most notably in 2014 when I made a deep dive into German culture; (see German History, Rise of the Third Reich). I'd love to eventually dive deeper into this political ideology of Nazism/Facism, but that might come at a later time. For now I'm going to focus on the key players and leaders within Hitler's inner circle. These were people that completely devout to Hitler's vision and just as racist, maniacal, and wicked as he was. I want to clarify that this post, is entirely an academic study and in no way whatsoever an endorsement of their activities or beliefs. In some ways it can be seen as a lesson to learn and deter from current political trends. 

Leaders of the Nazi Party

Adolf Hitler

Position: Fuhrer of Nazi Germany

Rise to Power: After serving in WWI, Hitler felt heavy resentment at their defeat and quickly got involved in far-right politics. He joined Anton Drexler's German Worker's Party and within a year he transformed these it to the Nazi Party in 1920. He recruited members of the occultist Thule Society, with an emphasis on racial theory, and he designed the party's new emblem of the swastika. His rise to power was mostly due to his passionate oratory which recruited many followers such as Rudolf Hess, Hermann Goring, and Ernst Rohm. In 1923 his failed coup d'état Beer Hall Putsch landed him a year in prison during which he wrote his political manifest known as the Mein Kampf. From there he began a new political public campaign, where the Nazi Party quickly rose to prominence and helped him assume the chancellorship by 1932. From there Hitler was able to expel all his political opponents in the Night of the Long Knives and became the Fuhrer (dictator) by 1933. From that point the Third Reich of Nazi Germany was his national state to control and dictate his extreme ideology.      

Fate: After 12 years as dictator, six of which were at war with Europe, he met his fall at the Battle of Berlin in April 30th, 1945. He took up residence in an underground bunker for 105 days while the Soviets began their bombardment of Berlin. Facing total defeat he chose to commit suicide by gunshot with his wife Eva Braun. His body was burned so no trace was discovered. 

Henrich Himmler

Position: Leader of the SS Protection Squadron; Schutzstaffel

Rise to Power: He joined the Nazi Party in 1923 and served as a bodyguard for Hitler where he was able to climb the ranks thru his devotion. By 1929 he assumed leadership of the SS and transformed the organization into an elite political police force providing security, surveillance, and state terrorism. It's often believed that Himmler was tasked to restructure the secret police force known as the SS in opposition to Ernst Rohm's powerful paramilitary force of the SA (Sturmabteilung) also known as brownshirts. Not to mention there was also the gestapo state police force to ensure Hitler had total authoritarian control. Himmler played a pivotal role in managing these secret police forces while also contributing to the development of the Jewish Holocaust. He was obsessed with mysticism, the occult, and established the Ahnenerbe in 1935 to advance the notion of Aryan supremacy. He appointed Reinhard Heydrich to oversee the Final Solution. By 1943 Himmler assumed the office of minister of the Interior as well as command of various army units towards the end of the war. 

Fate: Towards the end of the war in March 1945, Himmler attempted to begin peace talks with the Allies without Hitler's knowledge. Hitler was furious and heartbroken and this betrayal and ordered that he be arrested. Himmler went into hiding for a short period before he was captured by the British forces and committed suicide by cyanide in May 23, 1945.

Joseph Goebbels

Position: Minister of Propaganda

Rise to Power: He joined the Nazi Party in 1924 and quickly became a prominent writer as well as orator within the party. He began leading propaganda efforts to boost the popularity of the Nazi party while emphasizing antisemitic rhetoric. When Hitler came to power in 1933 he was appointed minister of propaganda, where he took control of all forms of mass media including the press, television, radio, film, and theatre. Following the Nazi's defeat at Stalingrad when the war took a sudden turn, he began a fierce media campaign of "total war". His intentions were not only to uplift morale, but also instill that every citizen fight till their last breath. Goebbels remained Hitler's most loyal follower up until the end. 

Fate: Goebbels moved his family into Hitler's underground bunker by April 22nd, 1945 during the Battle of Berlin. He stood alongside Adolf refusing to accept defeat all the way until the end. He infamously had his children killed by cyanide, and then committed suicide with his wife by gunshot (just a day after Hitler had committed suicide). His body was also burned so no trace could be found. 

Hermann Goring

Position: Chief of the Air Force (Luftwaffe)

Rise to Power: He was a fighter pilot ace of WWI, considered a hero by the German people. He was one of the early members of the Nazi party and joined Hitler's Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. During his time in prison he began an addiction to morphine and other drugs, which continued until his death. When Hitler took power in 1932 Goring became president of the Reichstag, the congress which essentially became ineffective when Hitler took the role as supreme dictator. Goring was also pivotal in establishing the Gestapo secret police force in 1934 which he gave control to Himmler. Perhaps his most prominent role was as chief of the Nazi air force known as the Luftwaffe. He also headed up an economic program known as the 4-year plan to prepare Germany for war in 1936. Goring was designated as Hitler's chosen successor. However during the war he quickly lost favor with Hitler, after his failed bombardment of Britain in 1940, failing to defend the air raids over Germany, and subsequent failure to supply German soldiers at Stalingrad. By 1943 Goring took more of a backseat to the leadership affairs on focused on collecting artwork stolen from Jews.  

Fate: By April 22nd, 1945 knowing that all was lost Goring sent a telegram to Hitler requesting to fulfill his role as Hitler's appointed successor. This was no doubt the final straw in an icy relation which infuriated Hitler. He had Goring removed from all his roles and ordered his arrest. After Germany surrendered to the allies, Goring turned himself in and became a prisoner of war for nearly a year. He was one of the chief suspects during the Nuremberg Trials of 1946 and was sentenced to death. Goring was able to smuggle a cyanide pill and committed suicide before his execution. 

Martin Bormann

Position: Chief of the Nazi Party Chancellery

Rise to Power: He was a member of the Freikorps paramilitary organization in 1922 and was later arrested for aiding his friend Rudolf Hoss in a political killing. After his release from jail he joined the Nazi Party in 1927 and became chief of staff in 1933 for the deputy Fuhrer Rudolf Hess. Within a few years he was a key member of Hitler's inner circle, and eventually took over Hess's role as Chief of the Nazi Party as well as Hitler's personal secretary. He was strongly antisemitic and anti-Christian. He was considered the gatekeeper to Hitler, and managed all his meetings, information, logistics, and legal documentation. 

Fate: He joined Hitler in his underground bunker during the final five months of the fall of Nazi Germany. After Hitler's death, Bormann attempted to flee Berlin and escape from the Soviet Red Army, however his body was never officially found. It is believed that he likely committed suicide a few days later in Berlin. He was tried in absentia during the Nuremberg trials and was sentenced to death by hanging. His body was not officially discovered and confirmed until 1973.   

Rudolph Hess

Position: Deputy Fuhrer of the Nazi Party

Rise to Power: He is often considered one of Hitler's earliest and most devoted followers beginning in 1920. He was at Hitler's side during the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch and helped Hitler write his Mein Kampf political manifesto. Despite being considered one of Hitler's closest, most trusted friends, his role was rather limited as a vice president or assistant. Furthermore his role as deputy ended abruptly when he suddenly decided to fly to Scotland in an attempt to negotiate peace with Britain in 1941. This not only led to his capture by the British army, but also his expulsion from the Nazi Party. This was ultimately a reckless attempt by Hess to regain some authority in his ceremonial title as deputy, which was eventually by the Nazis as a foolish effort to undermine Hitler. 

Fate: After the war, he was later tried during the Nuremburg Trials and was one of the few prominent Nazi members who was not sentenced to death. This was mostly due to his capture by the British during the majority of WWII as well as his mental state. He was however sentenced to life imprisonment, and spent nearly 40 years in Spandau Prison before committing suicide in 1987 at the age of 93.  

Reinhard Heydrich

Position: Director of the Gestapo and Reich Security

Rise to Power: After being discharged from the navy, he was hired by Henrich Himmler in 1931 as the head of a new internal intelligence force within the SS. Admired for his Nordic Ideal, he had a stoic sharp demeanor, often described as a man with an iron heart. Heydrich created the Sicherheitsdients (SD) which was an intelligence organization equivalent to the CIA or FBI. He also was given total control of the Gestapo which he used to swiftly irradicate any political dissidents. He was especially harsh against the Czech resistance and oversaw many task forces of death squads. In 1939 he established the Reich Security Main Office which unified his gestapo with the SD. So he essentially became like J Edgar Hoover, yet even more powerful since he sat on a mountain of information with an entire police force. Furthermore and perhaps his greatest claim to infamy was that he became the chief architect of the Holocaust. He chaired the Wannsee Conference in Jan 20th, 1942 where a Final Solution was decided to eliminate all Jews in Europe. He thus oversaw the administrative and logistical aspects of building 6 new extermination camps such as Auschwitz, and having nearly 11 million Jews deported to these camps via railway. 

Fate: On May 27th, 1942 Heydrich was assassinated by Czech resistance fighters in Prague during Operation Anthropoid. In response to this the Nazis brutally executed nearly 1300 Czechs and razed the villages of Lidice and Lezaky. It was fitting that the Butcher of Prague should thus meet his fate in Prague. He is considered one of the most cold-hearted/evil members of Hitler's inner circle. 

Albert Speer

Position: Reich Minister of Arms and War

Rise to Power: Albert Speer joined the Nazi party in 1931 and brought a unique architectural skill which quickly elevated his status. Hitler commissioned Speer to design the Reich Chancellery (government headquarters) as well as the Nazi Party rally grounds in Nuremburg which included the Zeppelinfeld grandstand. Speer became a close friend of Hitler, and accompanied him in Paris after the defeat of France. Like many in Nazi Germany, both Hitler and Speer envisioned a new age of German glory and thus intended to display this in their architecture. Speer's most ambitious project was tto completely rebuild Berlin after the war, known as the Welthaupstadt Germania. This would essentially transform Berlin into a modern day Rome or Athens with a mile long avenue, a massive triumphal arc, and a monumental dome that would seat 180,000 people, known as the Volkshalle (people's hall). The construction was however halted by 1943 after setbacks in the Soviet Union. Throughout the war Speer also played a pivotal role in the industrial production of armaments.   

Fate: In his final visit with Hitler in April 22nd of 1945, Speer confessed that he disobeyed Hitler's order to destroy all their architectural achievements. After the fall of Germany he was taken into custody and was among the 24 war criminals tried at Nurembourg. He was however not sentenced to death, rather 20 years of imprisonment for his role in using slave labor and contributing to the war machine. He later wrote a memoir which depicted himself as the "good nazi", who simply wanted to create art rather than buy into the racial ideals. Many scholars state this as a myth however due to his use of slave labor, involvement in evicting Jews, overseeing the armaments production, and his knowledge of the final solution. He was released from prison in 1966 and died in 1981 at the age of 76. 

Ernest Rohm

Position: Chief of the Sturmabteilung (SA) 

Rise to Power: He fought in WWI and was an early member of the Nazi Party. He joined Hitler during the failed 1923 Beer Hall Putsch in Munich. He spent 15 months in jail due to treason and later had a falling out Hitler. After his release he emigrated to Bolivia where he served as advisor to their army. He was later recalled by Hitler in 1930 to oversee the newly established paramilitary organization known as the SA. Also known as the brownshirts this was a group of militia thugs that used violence to influence their political party. Despite his open homosexuality he still held an affluential role as chief of the SA, and stood at the 2nd highest level in the Nazi party under Hitler. Distrust however began to grow by 1933 mostly from Henrich Himmler, due to Rohm's increasing power with a paramilitary force of nearly 3 million men. Himmler was able to convince Hitler that Rohm intended to turn the SA into a national army and overthrow Hitler.

Fate: Hitler initiated the Night of the Long Knives from June 30 to July 2, 1934 to purge all political opponents. Rohm was one of the highest ranking victims of this political massacre, which included 85 assassinations. 

Hans Frank

Position: Governor General of Occupied Poland

Rise to Power: He was one of Hitler's earliest friends and members of the Nazi Party and took part in the Beer Hall Putsch. By 1933 he became the chief legal advisor Hitler and the Nazi Party. In 1939 he was appointed governor-general of occupied Poland. He oversee many of the concentration and extermination camps that spanned throughout Poland. 

Fate: He was captured by American troops on May 4th, 1945 and attempted to commit suicide twice. He was one of the 24 war criminals of the Nuremburg Trials, and the only one (aside from Albert Breer) to show any regret. Despite his clear appeal for forgiveness he was still sentenced to death due to his crimes against humanity of which 4 million people were killed under his jurisdiction. 

Joachim von Ribbentrop

Position: Minister of Foreign Affairs

Rise to Power: He was already a well established diplomat by the time he joined the Nazi Party in 1933. Hitler valued his experience and connection in foreign affairs and elevated him to a prominent role. He was first appointed ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1936, before assuming the role as Reich Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1938. He was the key facilitator of the alliance with Mussolini's Fascist Italy, known as the Pact of Steel in 1939. He also coordinated the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union. He supported a Japanese attack on the United States as well as declaring war on the United States. He was however very against an invasion of the Soviet Union. He also played a pivotal role in deporting the Jews across various occupied territories to concentration camps. His influence began to diminish however by 1941 due to inner rivals such as Martin Bormann and a total lack for diplomacy.  

Fate: He went into hiding for a brief period after the war but was eventually arrested on June 14, 1945. He was found guilty in the Nuremburg Trials for his role in the Holocaust, and sentenced to death. 

Adolf Eichmann

Position: Chief Coordinator of the Final Solution

Rise to Power: He joined the Nazi Party in 1932 and served as an SS officer. He later was promoted to Heydrich's SD intelligence organization where he became director of Jewish affairs. He was responsible for all logistical elements pertaining to the Jewish Question (first by deporting them to ghettos, then sending them to concentration and extermination camps). He joined Heydrich's committee at the Wannsee Conference in 1942 where it was decided to completely exterminate all Jews in the Final Solution. He was alongside Heydrich one of the most evil figures of Hitler's inner circle. 

Fate: He managed to escape Germany after their defeat in 1945 and hid in various small towns up until 1950. He then moved to Argentina via an underground ratline that specialized in hiding Nazi war criminals (where nearly 9000 Nazis escaped thru). Eichmann was however eventually hunted and captured by Israeli agents and brought to trial in 1960 where he was sentenced to death. 

Alfred Rosenberg

Position: Head of Nazi Foreign Policy Office

Rise to Power: He was one of the early founders of the Germans Worker Party alongside Dietrich Eckart. He was most known for his political and racial theory which demonstrated the Nazi's hate for the Jews. This ideology was made clear in his 1930 creed, the Myth of the Twentieth Century (considered the 2nd most popular Nazi manifesto after Mein Kampf). He continuously shaped Nazi ideology thru prominent roles within the Nazi Party overseeing the cultural influence. He established the AMT Bureau as a surveillance organization to purge anything that was deemed harmful to the Nazi culture. He also established organizations to loot art and plunder from defeated nations. He became minister of the occupied eastern territories in 1941 which mostly included the Baltic states and parts of Soviet Union. During this time he oversaw many elements of the Holocaust.  

Fate: He was captured on May 19th, 1945 and sentenced to death at the Nuremberg Trials for his role in the Holocaust. 

Wilhelm Keitel

Position: Chief of the Wehrmacht High Command

Rise to Power: Keitel served in WWI and remained with the German army thru Hitler's rise to power. He swore allegiance to Hitler and assumed the high command of the armed forces in 1935. However despite being the chief field Marshall of all military forces, he was essentially Hitler's puppet. Hitler was very involved in the military tactics and made most the important decisions regarding the warfare plans. He was however quite ruthless against prisoners of war and ordered many mass executions. 

Fate: After the death of Hitler, Keitel was the highest ranking officer to sign the final surrender to the Allies on May 8th, 1945. He was later found guilty of crimes against humanity at the Nuremburg Trials and sentenced to death. 

Other Prominent Figures

• Ernest Kaltenbrunner (Head of SS). Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• Wilhelm Frick (Minister of the Interior) Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• Julius Streicher (Chief Editor of the antisemitic newspaper Der Sturmer). Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• 
  Fritz Sauckel (Chief Diplomat of Slave Labor) Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• Alfred Jodl (Chief of Staff for Armed Forces) Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• Robert Ley (Head of German Labour Front). Died by suicide in Oct 1945. 
• Arthur Seyss-Inquart (Chancellor of Austria/governor of occupied Netherlands) Sentenced to death at the Nuremburg Trials, 1946
• Walther Funk (Minister of Economics) Sentenced to life imprisonment. Released in 1957 and died in 1960.
  
• Erich Raeder (Former Chief of German Navy) Sentenced to life imprisonment. Released in 1955 and died in 1960.
• Karl Donitz (Chief of Navy/Hitler's successor). Sentenced to 10 years imprisonment and died in 1980. 
• Baldur von Schirach (Chief of Hitler Youth) Sentenced to 20 years imprisonment and died in 1974.
• Konstantin von Neurath (Former Minister of Foreign Affairs) Sentenced to 15 years and died in 1956. 
• Heinrich Müller (Director of the Gestapo) Was last seen with Hitler at the Fuhrer bunker in May 1945 and was never captured after the fall of Germany. His final fate remains a mystery yet is believed to have died during the Battle of Berlin. 
• Leni Riefenstahl (Propaganda director of Triumph of the Will and Olympia) She was not arrested or charged with war crimes deemed as a "fellow traveler" and not an official member of the party.