Historical Study: The Roman Empire

Carrying on with my study of Roman history, we now turn the page on the Roman Republic as it was transitioned into an Empire. The Roman Empire carried on with the success of the Republic, by further expanding their territory. They were the undisputed superpower of the world, with colonies that stretched from the coast of Spain, up into Britannia, thru Germania, along the African Coasts, and into the eastern lands of Babylon. While their territory continued to grow, they also oversaw a prosperous age of peace known as the Pax Romana. It was during this age that Roman society, culture, and infrastructure truly began to flourish.

During this age of the Roman Empire from 27 BC to 395 AD there was the birth of Christianity at the center of it all. Romans play a central part in the story of Jesus Christ, from the beginning when they ruled over the province of Nazareth. They called for a census which forced Joseph and his wife to travel to Bethlehem where their baby Jesus was born. Later in his life, Jesus was crucified at the hands of Roman authority under Pontius Pilate. Although it was the Jews driving this persecution, the Romans carried forth the execution. The Romans would continue to persecute Jewish and Christian zealots for some time until finally converting to Christianity in 313 AD.    

Augustus ushers in the Pax Romana

After defeating Mark Antony, the nephew of Julius Caesar, Octavian Augustus became the sole ruler of the Roman government and military. The senate recognized this authority by granting Augustus the title of imperium, emperor of Rome. Augustus ushered in a new golden era of peace known as the Pax Romana where the Roman Empire ruled with an iron fist. During this age of 200 years they were able to strengthen their domestic, political, territorial, and economic stability. It began with Augustus at the helm of the transition, who is often considered the greatest of the Roman emperors. It was during this time that Virgil wrote the Aeneid, considered the most famous work of Roman literature.

From the start of his reign in 27 BC, Augustus worked tirelessly to completely reform every phase of the government and it's infrastructure. This included a new system of governors to oversee the many provinces of Rome, all who answered to Augustus. He also changed the system of revenue and taxation which further advanced their wealth. With this wealth he was able to improve Rome's infrastructure with new roads, a mail service, police, firefighters, and architectural developments. He improved the military structure with a full time standing army, even when
they were not at dispute. Augustus also established the Praetorian Guard which served as a form of imperial security and also secret intelligence. 

He also oversaw expansion into Hispania (Spain and Portugal); the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum (modern day Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria); the Balkan territory of Albania, Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, and Hungary. He expanded his territories along the African coast as well as in the eastern reaches of Galatia (modern day Turkey). Augustus established the province of Judea in 6 BC and recognized King Herod the Great for some time, until after his death the province became a complete Roman vassal state. The only territory Augustus was unable to acquire was the Germanic tribes to the north. However that was a war that would continue long after Augustus' reign. 

The Julio-Claudian Dynasty

After the death of Augustus in 14 AD he was succeeded by his step-son Tiberius who reigned from 13-37 AD. Tiberius sustained the might of Rome, however he was renown for his paranoia with the senate. He entrusted much of his decision making to his chief praetorian guard, Sejanus. Tiberius was succeeded by his grandnephew Caligula who reigned from 37-41 AD. Caligula's rule was brief and while he achieved some advancements he struggled with mental illness. He was later assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, who put his uncle Claudius in power.    

Claudius was a good emperor and made significant advancements to the Roman Empire. He organized the government bureaucracy with a better system of legality pertaining to citizens and senators alike. He also began a new military campaign to conquer Britain in 43 AD (this effort was withdrawn by Caesar in 44 BC). I briefly watched the television show I, Claudius and gathered that his life was like a soap opera of adultery and conspiracy. 

He was succeeded by Nero in 54 AD who added to Rome's cultural identity by building new theater, athletics venues, events, and games. He also oversaw conflicts with Parthian Empire in Iran and the British revolt of Boudica in 61 AD. However Nero was considered an eccentric and his greatest claim to fame was Great Fire of Rome in 64. Some historical accounts claim he staged the fire to blame it on Christians, and played the fiddle on his balcony while the event unfolded. He was especially harsh on the spread of Christianity and executed many Christians including the prophets Peter and Paul. Following the fire Nero became very unpopular and was forced into hiding by a military coup and then committed suicide in 68 AD.

The Flavian Dynasty and the Colosseum

Following Nero's death, a power vacuum occurred throughout the empire without a clear heir to the throne. This lead to a civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors where power quickly shifted from Galba to Otho to Vitellius, and finally to Vespasian in 69 AD. Vespasian thus ended the Caesar dynasty and ushered in the Flavian dynasty. However there were still years of political turmoil and civil war to follow during Vespasian's reign. Vespasian quickly ruled with an iron feast, disposing his opponents, limiting the power of the senate, and building the revenue of the treasury. He also sacked Jerusalem in 70 AD which destroyed Herod's 2nd Temple. This was a major turning point for Jewish history as they were forced to migrate and seek new beginnings once again.  

Vespasian's greatest claim to fame was the building of the Colosseum in 70 AD (to this day one of Rome's most iconic landmarks). The Colosseum was to become the largest amphitheater of its time holding up to 80,000 spectators. The construction took ten years to complete by Jewish slave labor. Vespasian did not live long enough to see the work finished in 80 AD, when his son Titus oversaw the completion. The stadium was to host gladiatorial events, which were extremely savage yet quite common for it's time. Aside from gladiator fights to the death there were also many executions that occurred within this arena, specifically of Jews and Christians. This Flavian Amphitheatre towered over Rome to became the beacon of Roman society and entertainment. 

Flavian's son Titus had played a key role in the military command of the Jewish Wars, however his reign as emperor was brief. His greatest claim to fame was dealing with the Volcano Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD that killed thousands of people in Pompeii. He put forth great effort and resources to rebuild this city. Titus also oversaw the inaugural opening of the Colosseum with 100 days of gladiatorial games. Titus mysteriously died in the year 81 AD and was succeeded by his brother Domitian who reigned for 15 years. Domitian poured all his efforts to keep the people happy with donations and entertaining events in the Colosseum. He also oversaw the Dacian War of 86 AD to repel the Dacian Kingdom's invasion of the Balkan region. Towards the end of his reign he grew overly paranoid and made many enemies throughout the senate which led to his assassination in 96 AD.   

The Five Good Emperors

Nerva ascended to the throne with the support of the senate to restore political balance. His reign began a 100 year stretch of peaceful successions among five emperors often referred to as the Five Good Emperors. While he was popular with the senate and the people Nerva still had to answer for the assassination of Domitian which angered the army and the Pretorian Guard. Nerva used his chief commander Trajan as a buffer to find peace and compromise with the Pretorian leaders. Nerva's reign lasted only two years and he chose his military commander Trajan to succeed him in 98 AD.  

Trajan began a military campaign to crush the pesty Dacian Kingdom of Romania from 101 to 106 AD. He also captured the Kingdom of Armenia in 114, from the Parthian Empire but that was only a brief province. Trajan pressed further into Mesopotamia by crushing Jewish uprisings and capturing the cities of Babylon, Seleucia, and Ctesiphon (in modern day Iraq). He also captured the city of Susa, capital of the Parthian Empire and established a puppet ruler there. By 117 AD Trajan had gone further east then any Roman leader before him, and the empire had now reached it's territorial zenith. However after years of military campaign, Trajan decided he would not replicate Alexander the Great's eastward conquest. 

In 117 the imperial throne passed to one of Trajan's trusted military commanders, Hadrian. However after years of military service Hadrian's reign was marked by domestic projects and diplomacy. He relinquished much of the territory his predecessor had recently captured in Mesopotamia, feeling Rome had become too far stretch. He coordinated many construction projects across Rome such as rebuilding the Pantheon (that still stands to this day) and the massive Temple of Venus and Roma. He also established the Hadrian Wall as the northernmost point in central Britannia. This wall became a defensive barrier against British, Scottish, and Celtic tribes. Hadrian traveled more than any Roman emperor ensuring that the provinces were well managed. 

In 138 AD, Antoninus Pius took to the throne and continued peaceful stability throughout the empire. His notable achievements were constructing the Antonine Wall in southern Scotland, improving the aqueduct water systems, legal reforms, and increasing the Roman treasury. In 161 AD the throne passed to two joint emperor rulers in Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, who were adopted brothers. Marcus Aurelius dealt with the Germanic Barbarian tribes in the north while his brother commanded the Roman armies against the Parthian Empire in the east. Both brothers led without any tension, however Marcus Aurelius is regarded as the more famous of the two. His victory over the Germanic tribes during the Marcomannic Wars, were well documented in his philosophical writing known as the Meditations. Lucis Verus died in 169 of illness and Marcus Aurelius became the sole emperor for some time until his son Commodus joined his side as co-emperor in 177.

Commodus and the End of the Pax Romana

The great Marcus Aurelius mysteriously died in 180 AD and was succeeded by his ambitious son Commodus. The name of Commodus is quite familiar after his wicked depiction from the film Gladiator. While the movie took some major liberties with his character, it was true that Commodus ended the peaceful era of the Pax Romana. During his 13 year reign the Roman Empire began it's decline as Commodus slipped into further paranoia and insanity. He eagerly sought favor with the people and created a godlike persona, by staging victories as a gladiator in the Colosseum. He was eventually assassinated in 192 AD thru a plot be the senate. This once again led to a power vacuum and a period of instability. 

In the year 193 there were five emperors beginning with Pertinax, who was quickly killed by the Praetorian Guard. Didius Julianus replaced Pertinax thru the support of the Praetorian Guard, but this claim was opposed by the prominent senator Septimius Severus. Julianus was thus quickly overthrown by Severus who became emperor. Pescennius Niger a supporter of Julianus, declared himself emperor in opposition to Severus and waged a civil war. During this time Severus appointed a co-emperor, Clodius Albinus, to help him administer the government while he dealt with the civil war. The conflict finally came to end in 194 when Niger was defeated and killed in Antioch. 

The Severus Dynasty

The early reign of Septimius Severus was a partnership with Clodius Albinus dealing with civil conflict for some time. In 197 however he turned against his partner and killed Clodius at the Battle of Lugdunum, thus becoming the sole ruler of Rome. He then turned his attention by waging war on the Parthians to the east and the German and British barbarians to the north. In 211 AD he died of disease while campaigning in Britain. He was succeeded by his twin sons Caracalla and Geta (portrayed in Gladiator II) who were both under the influence of their mother Julia Domna. The two brothers were both unfit to rule and constantly fighting with the other. Caracalla eventually killed his brother Geta in 211 to become the sole ruler. Caracalla was renown for his cruelty, bribery, and corruption and was eventually assassinated in 217 by the Praetorian prefect Macrinus.

Macrinus ruled with his son Diadumenian as co-emperors very briefly but were defeated by Elagablus in 218 who had a claim to the Severus Dynasty. At the age of 14, Elagablus was a high priest of the Sol Invictus, and instituted a cultish regime for a brief period. He quickly became unpopular for his outlandish personae and was assassinated at the age of 18. The throne then passed to his cousin Severus Alexander who with the help of his mother, restored some stability in the empire from 222 to 235 AD. However by this point the mighty Roman Empire had begun to show cracks, beginning with the rising eastern strength of the Sasanian Empire and the continuous challenges brought on by the Germanic tribes. Severus Alexander was eventually overthrown and killed by his own army at the age of 27.

The Empire once again fell into civil chaos with competing claims to the throne, but without a sole leader for some time. In the year 238 AD there were 6 claimed emperors of Rome. While this civil conflict ensued Rome lost control of many of it's outer provinces such as Gaul, Britain, Hispania, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. Further crisis ensued in 251 AD with the outbreak of the Cyprian Plague (smallpox) wiped out millions of Roman citizens. By 268 AD the emperor Claudius II achieved a significant morale victory for the Romans during the Gothic Wars by crushing the Goth's advance in the Balkans. Emperor Aurelian continued this string of victories from 270-275 by defeating other threatening Germanic tribes encroaching on Roman territory.

The Constantinian Dynasty

Emperor Diocletian finally brought an end to the Crisis of the Third Century in 284 AD by resorting total control of the empire. He also appointed a secondary emperor, Maximian, to rule the western regions while Diocletian focused on the eastern half of the empire. This marked the beginning of the eastern/western split as both emperors were granted equal power. Each emperor created their own governing body and even established their own heirs. Furthermore each emperor established junior emperors in a new system referred to as the Tetrarchy. This system worked for a while and helped restore order to the splintering Roman Empire. However Diocletian's greatest claim to fame was not the establishment of the Tetrarchy, but rather his persecution of the Christians from 303-311. This was to become the bloodiest persecution in Christian history, but was also the last one by the Romans.

In 306 AD Constantine the Great ascended to the throne and quickly brought an end to the Christian persecutions and allowed religious freedom (especially since the Christians now made up more than half of the population). In 324 AD the Tetrarchy broke into civil war and Constantine emerged victorious as the sole ruler of Rome. He reorganized the government, the military, and the infrastructure by establishing a new golden coin currency (that would last for over a thousand years). He also oversaw successful military campaigns against the Franks, the Alemanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatians. Constantine is most recognized for his development of the Christian Catholic faith of which the Nicene Creed was developed in Rome 325, during his reign. In 330 Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantine, which was later renamed to Constantinople. This essentially marked the beginning of the Byzantine Empire which was to become the new Eastern Roman Empire. 

Constantine's children succeeded him after his death in 337 AD and the empire was once again divided into regions. However this once again led to civil war and various military insurgencies throughout the empire. The nephew of Constantine the Great, Julian became sole ruler in 361 AD and unlike his uncle he denounced the practice of Christianity. His reign was brief however and he was later replaced by his cousin Jovian, who restored Christian prominence yet also gave up much territory to the Sasanian Empire. Jovian's reign was also very brief, and he died in 364 to become the last of the Constantinian dynasty. 

The Division of the Roman Empire

The leadership of Rome once again came under military control in which Valentinian the Great declared himself emperor and appointed his brother Valens as the co-emperor. Valentinian achieved many military victories on the western side of the empire crushing Germanic assaults and British uprisings. However his brother Valens was not as successful on the eastern region and suffered a serious loss to the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD. After Valentinian and Valen's death the emperor Gratian took sole control of western Rome. However he quickly grew unpopular with the senate which led to a rebellion in 383 under general Magnus Maximus.

Maximus was a general from Spain and a devout Christian, who had previously crushed a rebellion in Britannia. With the support of the senate he marched his army into Rome to overthrow the emperor Gratian (no doubt inspiration for the film Gladiator). Maximus reigned as emperor for five years until he was defeated by the Eastern Emperor Theodosius at the Battle of Poetovio in 388 AD. Theodosius the Great strengthened the Roman Empire from 379 to 395 AD, crushed many rebellions, and is best known for making Christianity the official religion of Rome in 388. He is regarded as the final emperor of the glorious Roman Empire. 

Following his death in 395 AD, the empire was once again divided among his sons Arcadius and Honorius into the eastern and western regions. From this point the western empire lost absolute authority, and fell under military control. Little by little the Western Empire began to collapse to frequent Germanic assaults culminating to a decisive victory in 476 AD where Theodoric the Great claimed control of Italy. Meanwhile the Eastern Roman Empire quickly transitioned to become the mighty Byzantine Empire based out of Constantinople, an empire that would last for another thousand years.       

Historical Study: The Roman Republic

As per usual I tend to get into the sword-and-sandal historical era during the late winter months. I kicked off the video game Elden Ring at the start of 2025, which is a fantasy genre but very much on par with the sword-and-sandal setting. I've thus been watching various shows and movies on par with this game such as Lord of the Rings or anything to do with Vikings and the medieval ages. This turn to Roman fascination began a couple weeks ago after watching Gladiator II. The movie was quite dull in comparison to the original however still had an incredible setting, costumes, and special effects. It thus turned my attention to a deeper dive into Roman history. I started reading Virgil's Aeneid as well as watching more movies, shows, and documentaries about the Roman Empire. 

I've written various times on the topic, such as Rise of The Roman Empire and as a historical enthusiast all roads seem to come from ancient Rome. It's no question that most of civilization as we know it today derived form the mighty Roman Empire. They established law, order, infrastructure and conquest that spread throughout much of Europe, Africa, and Asia. They were the heir apparent to the mighty Greek and Macedonian Empires that would control the Mediterranean. They reigned supreme during the coming of Jesus Christ, and at first they persecuted his movement, but later become key advocates. Thru their conquest of savage, pagan, and barbarian tribes they instituted a new standard of society. Thus some considered Rome as the light, and when it fell the world entered the Dark Ages. 

Rome has such a rich culture of arts, customs, and mythology I hope to later dive into in a separate post. When I think of Rome, I see the Colosseum, gladiators, legionaries, aqueducts, and a thriving capital of society. Of course we all know the story of Julius Caesar, the military dictator who turned the Roman Republic into a Roman Empire. He achieved great military success throughout his career, whilst having an affair with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. However his ambitions were later betrayed by the senate where he was stabbed to death. His vision was upheld however when Augustus Caesar took the helm as first official emperor of Rome in 27 BC. Thus began the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. In this post I want to primarily focus on the era of the Roman Republic which spanned from 509 to 27 BC. 

Fall of The Roman Kingdom

According to tradition the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC along the Tiber River that brought on a new age of kings. Not much is known about these early days of ancient Rome. Legend has it that the twins Romulus and Remus were fed by a she-wolf, before becoming the first kings of Rome. The kingdom had one ruler, one chief priest (they worshipped the mythological gods), one chief legislator (who passed the laws), and one chief judge (who resolved legal disputes). In those days the king was not decided by birth, but rather by an election of the people. The Roman Kingdom also had one of the first functioning senates, however their power was quite limited to the authority of the king. 

Most of the early legendary kings of Rome were not conquering tyrants but rather ruled in peace. That is until 534 BC when Tarquinius Superbus (also known as Tarquin the Proud) stole the monarchy by military force to establish a tyranny. During his reign Tarquin killed all his political opponents and waged war on neighboring regions. Perhaps his only meaningful contribution was erecting the Temple of Jupiter, which became the most iconic building of ancient Rome. Tarquin however became very unpopular and a revolution began against the monarchy. By 509 BC the kingdom was overthrown by the king's nephew Lucius Junius Brutus who helped establish the Roman Republic. Tarquin was thus exiled as the last king of Rome, and the senate now took the governing authority.

Roman Republic expansion in Italy

At this time Rome was still a rather small territory on the western coast of central Italy. They were in the shadows of their northern neighbors the Etruscans who reigned supreme over the Roman Kingdom. However the armies of the Roman Republic began successful campaigns throughout Italy achieving victories over neighboring tribes throughout the Latium territory. Their definitive victory over the Etruscans finally came in 396 BC at the Battle of Veii. However this victory was short-lived when they were sacked by a tribe of Celts known as the Gauls in 387 BC. The Gauls from northern Europe established a big chunk of land near Rome, known as the Cialpine Gaul. However the Roman Republic quickly rebuilt it's city and the sack did not deter them all that much.

While Rome began to achieve military expansion throughout Italy, they had also established an efficient political system of democracy, similar to Ancient Greece. Elections were held to chose local magistrates, however there was still corruption where powerful families would controlled most affairs. This lead to a civil dispute known as the Conflict of Orders where many of these powerful families came opposition of the majority of Roman working class citizens. This was the dawn of political parties, where one side represented the wealth (known as patricians) and the other side represented the common man (known as the plebeians). 

By the 4th century the Plebeians had gained level ground with the Patricians, which demonstrated the success of Rome's democracy (free of corruption). The legal bill of the Leges Liciniae Sextiae gave the Plebians equal authority to consulship, priest support, and military matters. It also gave more land to the peasants. Also during this time of political progress, the Roman Republic continued it's military expansion against their Latium and Samnite neighbors. By 300 BC Rome had successfully conquered the Etruscans, the Latins, and the Samnites to control most of central Italy. 

The Rising Power of Carthage

By around 400-300 BC Ancient Egypt and Greece had begun to lose their control of the Mediterranean in place of the Roman Republic and Carthage. The city of Carthage was located on the eastern shores of modern day Tunisia and had established one of the most powerful trading hubs during this time. The capital city of Carthage was founded in 814 BC, by migrant colonists from Lebanon known as the Phoenicians, who were escaping Assyrian conquest of Mesopotamia. The city of Carthage also has a legendary origin story, similar to Romulus and Remus. It was founded by the Queen Dido from Tyre who later fell in love with the Trojan hero Aeneas, who broke her heart, and resulted in her suicide. This was of course a Roman legend by the poet Virgil, which represented the eventual fall of Carthage to the Romans.

However prior to it's collapse, Carthage thrived with a booming economy, political system, and naval supremacy. They controlled most of northern Africa, parts of southern Spain, the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, and parts of Sicily. The island of Sicily was heavily disputed among the Greeks and the Carthaginians (also known as the Punics). This dispute went on from 580-265 BC known as the Sicilian Wars, it was rather inconclusive but more-or-less ushered in Carthage supremacy over Greece. However the rising power of the Roman Republic also had a vested interest in this territory and so a new conflict arose between Rome and Carthage. 

The Punic Wars

The First Punic War broke out in 264 BC mostly fought over the territory of Sicily. It was the greatest naval battle of it's time with the two leading empires putting forth all their resources into this war. Battle by battle, the Romans gained the advantage and seized control of Sicily by 255 BC. The Punics were able to repel a Roman invasion into their African territory, which resulted in a tragic by the Roman army where their entire fleet of 100,000 soldiers were drowned in a storm. This gave the Punics a much needed victory after years of defeat. However the dispute did not end there and both sides quickly rebuilt theirs armies to resume fighting. The final decisive battle came in 241 where the Romans defeated the Punics at the Battle of Aegates Islands and the land of Sicily was officially annexed by Rome.    

The Second Punic War and probably the most famous began in 218 BC, where the Carthaginian army led by Hannibal waged a war by land against Rome. General Hannibal famously marched his army of 100,000 soldiers and war elephants from Iberia, Spain, across the Swiss alp mountains, and to the northern region of Rome. He easily defeated the Romans of Gaul and enlisted them to join his cause. At this point Rome was forced to cancel their plans to invade Carthage in order to respond to Hannibal's advances. Hannibal achieved another key victory in 217 BC at the Battle of Lake Trasimene in central Italy. Realizing they were facing obliteration, the Romans quickly changed their tactics to a war of attrition known as the Fabian Strategy. By avoiding direct engagements, the Romans were able to buy time to rebuild their army and resources. 

Still Hannibal continued his string of victories at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC where he had now established a strong foothold in southern Italy. By this point Rome was all but surrounded and many outer regions began to swear allegiance to Carthage (including Macedonia and Syracuse). Rome began to enlist slaves and criminals to bolster their numbers and were able to repel Punic advances into Sardinia and Sicily. The war spread slowly on various fronts where Hannibal invaded Italy, his brother Hasdrubal defended Iberia, and various battles throughout northern Africa. In 209 BC, the newly appointed general Scipio Africanus had begun to mount a string of victories throughout Spain. In 208 BC he defeated Hasdrubal to capture the Iberian region in Cartagena. The Romans had now finally gained the advantage and Hannibal was forced to retreat to Calabria in southern Italy. 

Scipio then began an offensive on Africa in 205 BC and Hannibal was forced to pull his army from Italy to defend their capital city of Carthage. The penultimate battle finally came at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC where Scipio Africanus decisively defeated Hannibal thus ending his very impressive military campaign. This marked the end to the Second Punic War, by which Carthage was stripped of it's European territories in Spain and Italy. Over the next 50 years Carthage lost it's power and influence to the mighty Roman Republic. In 149 BC, Rome decided to deliver the crushing blow to Carthage in response to a Punic dispute with their Numidian allies. The Third Punic War was mostly fought in Tunisia, and although the Punics did achieve some minor victories, it was mostly a swift conflict that resulted in the complete destruction of Carthage. 

Roman-Greek Wars

As Rome and Carthage were on the rise, so too was the Macedonian Empire under Philip II and his son Alexander the Great. From 359 to 336 BC Philip II conquered the Greek city-states to become the new power in the Balkan region. His son Alexander the Great furthered this expansion with a military campaign into Asia Minor. During his reign from 336 to 323 BC, Alexander achieved many victories to establish one of the largest empires of it's time. He later intended to continue his campaign westward to face the Romans, however he died at the age of 30. His kingdom was thus divided and swallowed up by various Greek states as well as the emerging might of the Roman Republic. 

For the next 250 years the Roman Republic fought against the Greek and Macedonian empires to their east, while fighting against the Carthaginians to their west. The first major Roman war against Greece was the Pyrrhic War in 280 BC. King Pyrrhus of Epirus, Greece led a campaign into Southern Italy to support the Lucanians against Roman conquest. Pyrrhus was a fierce commander and won several victories with his army of war elephants. However his resources quickly ran dry in foreign territory and his was forced to withdraw his military campaign. By 275 BC the war came to an end, and the Greek supported region of Lucania came under Roman control.

During the Second Punic War in 214 BC, King Philip V saw an opportunity to press an advantage for Macedonia. He thus allied with Carthage and led an invasion by sea on the territory of Illyria (which was on the Balkan coast of modern day Albania). Hannibal's hope was that the Macedonian army would secure begin invading southern Italy from the Adriatic Coast, but this never came to pass. However the First Macedonian War was nothing more than a series of skirmishes that ended in a ten year stalemate. Macedonia was never able to conquer the territory and failed to come to Hannibal's aid. After the end of the Second Punic War in 201 BC, the Romans were now able to give their full attention to Macedonia and waged a campaign to liberate the Greek states. The Second Macedonian War was a crushing defeat for Philip V, who was forced to give up all Greek city-states to Roman control. 

As Greece and Macedonia began to lose it's influence in the Balkans, a new power arose in the eastern lands of Antioch (Turkey) known as the Seleucid Empire. The empire was established by a Macedonian general Seleucus Nicator in 312 BC who served under Alexander the Great. At it's height the empire spanned beyond Persia and parts of Asia Minor and into the Balkan regions of Thrace and Macedonia. It was only a matter of time before this new rising power in the east would meet head on with the rising power of Rome in the west to fight over the lands of Greece. Thus the Roman-Seleucid War broke out in 192 BC under the leadership of King Antiochus III the Great. After several years of fighting his Selecuid army was soundly defeated at the Battle of Magnesia in 189 BC. This marked an end to the power struggle by which the Seleucid Empire was forced to give up their Balkan territory which lead to their slow demise, whilst the Roman Republic reigned supreme.

Despite the decisive Roman victories in the Second Macedonian War and the Seleucid War, the fight over Greece continued in 171 BC. The ambitious King Perseus, sought to avenge his father King Philip V and restore glory to Macedonia. He refused to give in to Roman control, which led to the Third Macedonian War. The conflict was fought entirely in Macedonia and ultimately furthered Rome's grasp on the region. Twenty years later in 150 BC, Andriscus attempted to restore the Macedonian kingdom in face of Roman occupation which kicked off the Fourth Macedonian War. The uprising however was quickly crushed and lead to the final annexation of Macedonia by Rome. 

With Macedonia now under Roman control, the Roman Republic turned it's attention to the final strongholds of Greece. The Archaean League was a confederation of Greek city states, and about the last opposition to Roman dominance in the Mediterranean. By 146 BC, tensions arose between the Archaea League and Rome, who were just looking for a reason to swallow up this region. The Archaean War was a quick victory for Rome, who easily conquered the capital of Corinth and annexed all of mainland Greece. This was around the same time that the Romans had conquered Carthage bringing an end to the Punic Wars. Thus by 146 they had defeated all their rivals (Carthage, Macedonia, Greece, and the Selecuid Empire) to retain total control of the Mediterranean. 

Civil Conflicts and the Rise of Caesar

After many years of foreign conquest the Roman Republic entered a period of domestic crisis in 133 BC. This was brought on by political instability thru corruption, social unrest, and slave revolts. The Servile Wars were a series of slave uprisings from 135-132 BC, 104-100 BC, and 73-71 BC (which was the most famous led by the gladiator Spartacus). There was also an outbreak of social class war during the Marsic Rebellion of 91 to 87 BC. The Roman Republic was still able to sustain control during these civil conflicts and managed to conquer the Kingdom of Pontus (along the Black Sea) in 63 BC and the African Kingdom of Numidia in 46 BC.

The civil conflict however continued to gain steam and had now divided the members of the Senate. In 63 BC, the Catilinarian Conspiracy was a failed coup d'état by members of the senate to gain control of the government. However this gave way to the powerful alliance known as the First Triumvirate of three prominent military generals; Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar. The senate and government was now under the authority of these three men, by which the Roman Republic was now moving towards a dictatorship. Caesar became the most popular of the three after achieving major victories during the Gallic Wars of 58 to 50 BC. He also led the first campaigns into Britain but did not acquire any territory. Meanwhile General Crassus was defeated and killed during the Parthian Wars in Mesopotamia. 

With the death of Crassus the Triumvirate was splintered and soon Pompey and Caesar found themselves at odds. This tension reached a new height when Pompey's wife died in childbirth, which happened to be the daughter of Julius Caesar. Realizing this tension, Pompey turned to politics to win the support of the senate and withdraw Caesar's consul authority. This act thus lead to the Roman Civil War of  49 to 45 BC fought between Caesar and Pompey. The Pompeian army achieved a significant victory at the Battle of Dyrrhachium in 48 BC where Caesar was forced to retreat into Thessaly, Greece. At this point it seemed Pompey had the military advantage with the larger army and the full support of the Roman senate. And yet somehow he was soundly defeated a few months later at the Battle of Pharsalus in Greece by Caesar's army. This was Caesar's decisive victory by which Pompey was quickly hunted down and assassinated later that year in Egypt. 

From this point on many prominent Roman senators such as Junius Brutus and Cicero switched their support of Pompey to Caesar. The civil war continued for a few more years throughout Asia Minor, Africa, and Spain until Caesar returned to Rome in 44 BC as the newly recognized dictator of Rome. This ultimately marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of a Roman Empire, where Caesar became the first sole ruler of the mighty Rome. However before his vision could be realized he was assassinated by the Senate who hoped to retain their system. This lead to a power vacuum which became the fateful transition of Roman Republic into Roman Empire. 

The Second Triumvirate

Following the death of Caesar, three of his prominent allies established a second Triumvirate in oppisition to the Senate. This included the general, statesman, and high priest known as Lepidus; the general Mark Antony, and the nephew of Julius Caesar, Augustus Octavius. These three worked together to crush all of Caesar's opponents within the senate. This period known as the Liberator's Civil War was ultimately waged in 43 BC to avenge the assassination of Julius Caesar. Prominent senate members such as Brutus and Cassius were killed during this time. Following this purge of the senate, the second Triumvirate reigned supreme for nearly ten years. Mark Antony established new alliances with Ptolemaic Egypt, while Octavius fought against Sextus Pompey during the Bellum Siculum Civil War of 42 o 36 BC. Lepidus quickly lost influence within the triumvirate as he dealt with affairs in northern Africa.

Octavius became the more popular of the three after defeating Pompey in the Roman Civil War of Bellum Siculum. Meanwhile Mark Antony was defeated in his military campaign against the Parthian Empire of Mesopotamia in 36 BC. Soon after the Triumvirate began to crumble and a power struggle for the sole control of Rome took place. Mark Antony began a love affair with Egypt's Queen Cleopatra, hoping to gain her support in a civil war against Octavius. However he was no match for the might of Octavius Roman force, and was soundly defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Cleopatra and Mark Antony committed suicide shortly after and thus Octavian Augustus became the undisputed leader of Rome. He was granted lifetime dictatorship by the senate which was essentially a declaration of a new imperial regime. by 27 BC the Roman Republic had come to an end and Augustus became the first emperor of the Roman Empire.  

Video Game Review: Star Wars Jedi Survivor

After much deliberation, last Black Friday I finally upgraded my Xbox One to a Play Station 5. This was a costly purchase but a necessary one as they are no longer producing new games for the Xbox One. This is the first Play Station console I own after nearly 15 years with the Xbox 360 and Xbox One. The first games I purchased were FIFA 25 and Elden Ring (which I intended to play all throughout the winter). However unexpectedly my brother Gabriel bought me the game Jedi Survivor for my birthday. So the past few weeks I put in about 40 hours into playing this game. All-in-all I'd say it was quite enjoyable and much more challenging than I had anticipated. Here is my brief review on the game. 

Game Premise

This game is a sequel to Jedi: Fallen Order (released in 2019) which I have not played yet. It pertains to the young Jedi Cal Kestis, a survivor of execute order 66, who now navigates the galaxy under control by the Empire. He is joined by a team of companions including his handy droid BD1; his pilot and mechanic Greez; his love interest Merin (a former member of the witch clan known as the Nightsisters); and the mercenary Bode. He travels the galaxy on board the spaceship known as the Mantis. 

In this storyline Cal is working for Saw Gerrara as a resistance fighter stealing some plans from a senator on Coruscant. During the mission much of his crew is ambushed and killed. Cal and his partner Bode escape Coruscant and fly to the planet Koboh, to reunite with their companion Greeze who can repair the Mantis. On Koboh, Cal bumps into an ancient droid, Zee, who helps him uncover a hidden planet known as Tanalorr. This also leads him to an entrapped jedi named Dagan. Cal is able to free Dagan, but later discovers that Dagan has turned to the dark side. 

Cal travels to the planet of Jedha to reunite with other exiled Jedi and learn more of the mystery of Dagan and the planet Tanalorr. The elder Jedi advise Cal to seek out the 3 hidden compasses throughout the galaxy to help find the planet of Tanalorr. Cal, Greeze, Bode, and Merin all seek to escape to the planet Tanalorr as a means to be free from Empire. On an Imperial moon, Cal confronts and kills Dagan and his henchmen. Cal then returns the compasses to the Jedi archives at Jedha, however they are then suddenly betrayed by Bode. Bode kills the elder Jedi and steals the compasses while the Imperial army arrives to assault the hidden Jedi base. The Jedi master Cere is killed while confronting Darth Vader. 

Cal, Greeze, and Merin are able to escape Jedha and then begin a quest to track Bode down. During this time Cal is fueled by anger and begins to struggle with the dark side of the force. He learns that Bode passed over all this information to the Empire, so that he could find a better life for his daughter. Cal and his crew are able to find an alternate route to Tanalorr. There they find Bode and both Cal and Merin defeat him together. The crew then decide to adopt Bode's young daughter and settle on the planet Tanalorr, free from the Empire. I was kind of disappointed to see Bode turn into the ultimate enemy as he was actually a rather likable guy until his betrayal. 

Gameplay

Although this game was not entirely open-world, it certainly had some detailed maps. I was shocked at the labyrinths and layers within each planet, and found myself getting lost quite frequently. I would often have to refer to the map to get an idea of where I had and hadn't been yet. I also found there were many puzzles in this game, with an array of navigational options. With each level Cal discovered new gadgets and force powers that helped his navigation. Such as running alongside walls, ziplining, using a grapple hook, a triple jump, a force pull-and-push, and a force crush. BD1 also offers tools necessary for unlocking puzzles (such as binoculars, electric blasts, and array force). Cal can also can ride on various animals by land or air to enhance exploration. With each upgraded ability, new regions of the map could be explored.

Aside from his movement abilities were his weapon and combat abilities. The character had the usual customizable features for his wardrobe and his weapon. I always like this feature within games to personalize your character. Cal can customize BD1, his blaster, and lightsaber with various components and colors. Throughout the game he can also acquire skill points to upgrade new combat and force attacks. Another unique feature was his different combat stances; this included the single blade, the dual blades, the double-blade (Darth Maul style), and the blaster and blade. My favorite stance was the double blade where I was able to maximize attacks utilizing dodge movements and slow-motion force attacks.

I won't lie I rather zipped thru this game, intending to put more time and effort into Elden Ring. But I did find it quite challenging and rewarding. I found some of the bosses to be quite difficult especially the frog beast, Darth Vader, and Bode. I also enjoyed the collectables and shopping to be done in the Saloon on Koboh, such as buying musical tracks to be played at the Cantina. One aspect I liked but really didn't explore much was the bounty hunting. I must say I was disappointed by the gardening feature, where there was nothing to gain from the plants that Cal collected and grew. I did enjoy talking to the local characters, and took on some of their side quests. The game definitely had a Star Wars feel to it, and put me into a mini Star Wars phase throughout the holiday season which is always quite nostalgic. 

Top 50 Best Movie Moments

 I want to continue this film appreciation phase with a deeper dive into my favorite movies. I've been wanting to write this post for some time now, pertaining to the greatest scenes in movie history. Every great movie usually has a few moments within the movie, where the story reaches it's zenith. This is usually towards the end of the film, where the story has reached it's climatic arc, but not always the case. It can often come at the beginning of the film to establish the setting or even during the middle of the story to further develop characters. It's a moment of top cinematic quality on all fronts ranging from the musical score, the acting, the filming, the special effects, and so forth. 

I remember my sophomore year in college I took a course on film studies, which I really enjoyed, and began to better understand movies as an art form. I remember there was one class where we learned about shots, scenes, and sequences. Any time the camera changes it's position is referred to a shot, which normally lasts 5 to 10 seconds depending on the dialogue. These shots help establish the scene, which is a given location in the film. When the scene changes locations, but it still relates to the present narrative, this is known as a sequence. Every movie is constantly changing shots, scenes, and sequences to further the story along (unless it's a rare film like 1917 which is basically one single shot). I especially enjoy long shots because it demonstrates more skillful acting and cinematography. 

I believe what makes a movie scene really special is it's ability to hit at the emotions. The story is of course the driving force of every movie but the filming can help enhance these moments. For example at the end of Gladiator, where Maximus has defeated the evil emperor and transitions into the afterlife. This is such a beautiful movie moment, because it stirs emotions of happiness but also sadness at the same time. The musical score at this moment helps accentuate this moment, added by the performance of the actors, and any additional film elements. In my list here, I'll explain the details of these scenes, the musical compositions, and how they are able to hit at the emotional nerves. It should come as no surprise that most of my favorite scenes all come from my favorite movies (and some of these films even have multiple. 

50. Gatsby's Party (The Great Gatsby) 2013

In the modern adaptation of Great Gatsby directed by Baz Luhrmann we don't actually see Gatsby himself until a good 20 minutes into the film. He is portrayed wonderfully by Leonardo DiCaprio, as a suave mysterious billionaire. When the narrator played by Tobey Maguire, gets an invitation to one of Gatsby's parties, we saw the wild extravagance unfold. Prominent people and beautiful women dancing to loud jazz music and so forth. Maguire's sheer shock at the party unfolding before him makes this all the more surreal. And Gatsby's introduction really puts a cherry on top to the backdrop of fireworks and Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue. 

49. For you a Thousand Times Over (The Kite Runner) 2007

I realize this film probably didn't get too much attention or accolades, but I just think it's such a beautiful story. And for me the ending always hits an emotional sensation. After much turmoil, Amir has adopted the boy of his former servant who he use to chase kites with. When the young boy cuts down a kite, Amir proudly volunteers to chase it down in a total act of gratitude, humility, and homage to the boy's father. The story comes full circle at this point and the musical score of Alberto Iglesias truly establishes a blissful moment.  

48. Penguins Swimming (Happy Feet) 2006

I remember being obsessed with this movie one summer and always quoting the lines with my brothers while we swam at my parent's lake. It's a musical film and has many catchy songs but two in particular are from the Beach Boys. I love the rendition of In my Room, but the best scene for me is when the penguins make their polar plunge and swim to the song, Do it Again. It's a playful scene where the penguins swim in sync with one another. What really makes it special is the moment where Mumble and Gloria come together and create the shape of a heart. To me this scene demonstrates that joyful feel of youthfulness and also blossoming romance. 

47. I am Spartacus (Spartacus) 1960

This epic sword-and-sandal film, starring Kirk Douglass has an epic famous ending. His army of rebel rousers has been defeated by the Roman Empire. When the Romans ask for Spartacus to step forward to face his punishment, the entire slave army volunteers to stand with Spartacus and face a certain death. Spartacus is so moved by the situation a term comes down his face. 

46. Rocky training montage (Rocky) 1976

The movie series Rocky has many great training montages. Perhaps one of the most iconic is him running thru the streets of Philadelphia, drinking raw eggs, training with Mickey, and sprinting up the 72 stairs of the Museum of Art. He then puts his arms in the air in an iconic moment of triumph. The sequence is backed by the motivational theme song Gonna Fly Now by Bil Conti.

45. Si No Te Hubieras Ido (Y Tu Mama Tambien)

This is my favorite of many great scenes in this road trip comedy film starring Gabriel Garcia Bernal, Diego Luna, and Maribel Verdu. In this scene at an outdoor bar the trio makes peace after various episodes of tension. They share laughs and stories about sex while drinking tequila. The scene takes on an artistic quality when Maribel plays a song from the jukebox. She then faces the camera and does an exotic dance to the song, Si No Te Hubieras Ido by Marco Antonio Solis. The three then come together to share a dance in what eventually leads to a ménage-a-trois. 

44. Parting of the Red Sea (Ten Commandments) 1956

Here is another big scale movie with many big scale moments and groundbreaking special effects for it's time. For me the one that really awe-inspires is when Moses parts the Red Sea to free the Israelites from the pharaoh's army. This is a very suspenseful and intense moment where Moses performs a miracle to finally be free from Egypt. The scene is carried by Charlton Heston's passionate performance, great special effects, and a powerful musical score from Elmer Bernstein.

43. Single Shot during combat (Children of Men) 2006

At the climax of this film by Alfonso Cuaron, Theo played by Clive Owen is caught in an intense insurgency. What is most impressive about this scene is the long take single shot in the midst of heavy gun fighting and explosions. The filming has a very raw and authentic feel to it, as it shakes and follows Theo as he tries to search for Key in the midst of a battle. As he takes cover inside a bus, the camera is literally covered in blood drops yet the shot continues with gunfire and explosions galore. It's just an incredible uninterrupted shot of intensity, that you can't take your eyes off of. The scene goes on for over 6 minutes without cutting away, until Theo finally finds Kee. 

42. The Diner Scene (Pulp Fiction) 1994

Pulp Fiction is without question Quentin Tarantino's best movie, and there are quite a few great scenes to chose from. The one that really stands out for me is the 1950s diner scene with John Travolta and Uma Thurman. The chemistry between these two actors is undisputable, and their dialogue really draws you into the moment. The scene goes up a notch, when they spontaneously decide to take center stage on the dance floor. Once again their natural chemistry (and Travolta's smooth moves) are at full display as they dance to the 1950s hit, You Never Can Tell by Chuck Berry. 

41. Miguel crosses into the Land of the Dead (Coco) 2017

I'm not sure why it is, but I've always found the transition into the afterlife to be one of the most beautiful moments in film. Of course we have no idea what this experience might be like, but I like to think it will be a heavenly ascension into a paradise. This is certainly the case in Coco, at the midst of the film when Miguel crosses over to the land of the dead. Here the film introduces a magical utopia full of vibrant colors, happy skeletons, and animal spirits. Miguel's sense of wonder as he crosses this bridge of flower petals always hits an emotional nerve for me. It is incredible animation with a beautiful musical score by Michael Giacchino.

40. Cleopatra enters Rome (Cleopatra) 1963

Many of the movie moments on this list, are here simply because of the epic scale of the scene. That is most definitely the case for Elizabeth Taylor's portrayal of Queen Elizabeth. She is simply stunning in the roll as Cleopatra, and I think this is especially demonstrated in her entrance into Rome. It is a parade before Julius Caesar with hundreds of dancers and performers making way for Cleopatra. She is then hauled in on a giant sphinx pulled by many male slaves. She comes off as not just a queen but a goddess of Egypt. 

39. Dorothy's arrival into Oz (Wizard of Oz) 1939

In my previous post, I wrote about this movie, and what it must have felt like to witness this groundbreaking film in color for the first time in theaters in 1939. The first 20 minutes of the film take place in black-and-white. The movie then makes it's colorful debut where Dorothy realizes she's not in Kansas anymore. It's a big scale scene with an elaborate set design known as Munchkin Land. The costumes, makeup, and town design are especially colorful to accentuate this groundbreaking visual display. 

38. King Kong ain't got shit on me (Training Day) 2001

This is the climax moment of the film Training Day, and demonstrates the genius acting of Denzel Washington. In a moment of defeat, he goes on a tirade as he is held at gunpoint by LA gangsters. He realizes he is about to be exposed as a corrupt cop and begins shouting all sorts of profanities. The performance is truly raw much of which was improvised by Denzel. He rightfully won the Oscar for this role, and I think this scene here was the pinnacle of this performance. 

37. He is the One (The Matrix) 1999

This movie series introduced many groundbreaking film techniques, most notably the slow-motion action sequences. This was best demonstrated midway thru the film where Neo is able to dodge bullets. However the scene for me that really hits the heights, is when Neo realized he no longer needs to doge bullets. This is towards the end of the film, where Neo is suddenly able to see the Matrix, defeat the enemy agents with ease, and save his lover, Trinity. The scene presents some great special effects, combat choreography, musical score of Howard Shore, and convincing acting by Keanu Reeves, Carrie-Anne Moss, and Laurence Fishburne. 

36. Frankly my Dear (Gone with the Wind) 1939

Gone with the Wind has several impressive big scale scenes in it, but really only one made my top 50 here. It's probably one of the most famous lines in movie history, and of course you'd have to watch the movie to really do the scene justice. It's the closing of the film, where the overly dramatic Vivien Leigh asks Clark Gable what can she do in the new South and Clark Gable responds with "Frankly my dear, I don't give a damn". It may seem harsh without context but Vivien's character was very selfish throughout the entire story. The use of the word, "Damn" in a motion picture was also very controversial for it's time.

35. America (West Side Story) 1957

The musical West Side Story has many great musical performances but for me the one that really shines above the rest is America. For starters it's a very catchy song by Leonard Bernstein and Stephen Sondheim but also displays passionate acting and dance choreography. The premise is a back and forth musical dialogue between a group of Latin women and Latin men. The setting is also quite noteworthy as the entire dance scene is performed on a rooftop at night in New York City. It's a musical piece of playful expression which I could just watch over again and again. 

34. April Come She Will (The Graduate) 1967

There's quite a few iconic scenes from the Graduate carried by Dustin Hoffman's brilliant performance. One that I wanted to include in this list, but just didn't quite make the cut was the closing scene on the bus. It's rather brief, but the two share a raw and insecure moment of what has just transpired. Director Mike Nichols created many scenes similar to this where Dustin doesn't speak any words, yet merely reflects in a pensive manner. My favorite scene in the movie is during the summer affair, where the camera just focuses on Dustin lying in bed while Mrs. Robinson is seen in the background. He then smokes a cigarette, takes a plunge in the pool, and is then back in bed with Mrs. Robinson. This sequence masterfully demonstrates his deep state of bliss and freedom to the amazing song April Come She Will by Simon and Garfunkel. 

33. Eve is Set Free (V for Vendetta) 2005

I think this is another amazing film that was snubbed in the Oscar department with many memorable lines, performances, and scenes. The one that chokes me up the most is when Eve played by Natalie Portman, is released from a torture chamber. She was placed in a dark chamber with minimal food or comfort for some time. After refusing to speak of V, she proudly faced her execution, only then to realize that the whole thing was a hoax. At this point Natalie Portman is overcome by a whirlwind of emotions. She is furious at V for this cruel trick, but more-so she realizes that she is now free from fear. Natalie Portman's emotional breakdown is just amazing acting, and I think she deserved an Oscar nod for this scene alone. 

32. English Settlers arrive to Virginia (New World) 2005

This artistic opening scene by Terrence Malick sets the stage for an adaptation of the Pocahontas story. The Native Americans watch in curiosity while three massive ships approach the coastline of Virginia. The English settlers also look out into the New World with great fascination. The scene goes on for nearly four minutes without any dialogue, to the beautiful instrumental music of Richard Wagner's Vorspiel. This musical piece truly helps establish a sense of wonder, that was no doubt felt by both civilizations meeting for the first time. 

31. Carnival Celebration (Grease)1978

Although this movie didn't graze my top 100, the final
scene is one of the best feel good moments. The story reaches the perfect happy ending, after graduation, where John Travolta and Olivia Newton John set aside their differences. Together they sing the duet Your the One That I Want, at the backdrop of a carnival. The duet then transitions to a group song, We Go Together where the entire cast gleefully sings and dances on the open fields of the carnival. The friends state they will always be together, as Travolta and Oliva magically fly off in their car into the sky. It truly is a blissful moment, that takes me back to the summer days following my grade school and high school graduation. This final scene captures that bond of friendship, but also hints at the reality that the friendship is likely going to end. It's still such an exciting time and for me this closing scene is like a portrayal of heaven. 

30. It's All an Illusion (Illusionist) 2006

At the grand finale of the Illusionist the inspector played by Paul Giamatti comes to the sudden realization of what has transpired. The illusionist played wonderfully by Edward Norton, devised a clever plan where he pinned the death of the duchess on the wicked crowned prince. The situation drove the crowned prince to madness, while the duchess was still alive in hiding. The inspector acknowledges this clever trick with a passionate applause, that is no doubt felt by the entire audience at this point in the film. The movie then closes with a romantic exchange between the illusionist and the duchess. It's such a beautiful story with a great musical score by Philip Glass.

29. Older sister leaves for California (Almost Famous) 2000

There's quite a few beautiful scenes in Almost Famous backed by great classic rock songs, such as the singing of Tiny Dancer, or Something in the Air. But the scene that always inspired me the most was when Zooey Deschanel decided to leave her mom and move to California. Rather then explain her reasoning, she just played the song America by Simon and Garfunkel. The song continues to play as the elder sister packs her car, and then bids her younger brother farewell. She also leaves him with the perfect parting gift; her entire album collection. 

28. Is that my Daughter?! (Mystic River) 2003

This murder mystery film directed by Clint Eastwood had so many great emotional scenes. The acting of Sean Penn and Tim Robbins was top notch quality. Their conversation on the porch was another favorite scene of mine that almost made this list. However the scene that really stands out is Sean Penn's realization that his daughter has been murdered. He is held back by 10 police officers while he cries out in great emotion, "Is that my daughter in there?!". Kevin Bacon cannot find the words to tell him that his daughter is dead. The camera then zooms out from above, and the beautiful musical theme song, composed by Clint Eastwood closes it out. Just a powerfully emotional scene that won Sean Penn an Oscar. 

27. Opening Romance in Paris (To the Wonder) 2012

This artistic film by Terrence Malick is constantly in motion, with a beautiful musical score throughout. There are many scenes that hit an emotional sensation for me, but one of my favorites kicks off right at the beginning. Just as he did with New World, Malick uses another classical music piece by Richard Wagner; the Parsifal: Prelude to Act 1. The camera begins with some amateur filming on a train ride where Ben Affleck and Olga Kurylenko act silly with one another. As they arrive to Paris, the film quality gets much more defined as they visit the iconic landmarks of the city. Their is no dialogue in this opening sequence yet sheer romantic emotion carried by the filming, the music, and passionate performances from Affleck and Kuryleko. For me the part that reaches it's zenith is when they visit the Mont Saint-Michel cathedral, where their on-screen romance matches perfectly with Wagner's crescendo. I think it's such a beautiful film opening by Malick. 

26. Battle of Sterling (Braveheart) 1995

I remember just being blown away by these large scale battles in Braveheart, that depicts a time where soldiers would just charge into one another with their swords. The Battle of Sterling is just jaw dropping when it comes to sheer sword clashing and graphic bloody gore. It goes on for a good ten minutes of charging soldiers, horses, arrows, swords, and many instances of bloody deaths. I usually don't like horror or gore movies, but I think in this scene it's quite necessary to demonstrate the savagery of war. Mel Gibson gives a very passionate performance in this scene as the Scottish leader William Wallace. 

25. Eywa has Heard You (Avatar) 2009

This is another great feel good moment in an epic fantasy movie directed by James Cameron. It appears the battle is all but lose for Jake and the Navi until suddenly the animals of Pandora come to their aid. Neytiri realizes that the mother goddess of Pandora, Eywa has answered their prayers and she gleefully shouts the news to Jake. At this moment the battle takes a turn in favor of the Navi. Aside from the story and incredible special effects, I think it's the inspirational music of James Horner that really makes this such a sensational scene. 

24. Sgt Elias is Shot in the Jungle (Platoon) 1986

This scene was the cover of the film, and when you watch it in action you understand why. It's the turning point of a story that is a war within a war between two American commanders fighting in Vietnam. William DeFoe gives an incredible performance as the likable Sgt Elias, who comes at odds with Sgt Barnes who is a hateful killer. Knowing that Sgt Elias plans to report on Barnes' role in a massacre, Barnes shoots him in the jungle and then leaves him for dead. As the American choppers take off, Sgt Elias is seen running from the Vietcong. The sad music of Adagio for Strings plays as Elias eventually falls to his knees overcome by all the bullet wounds. 

23. Chariot Race (Ben-Hur) 1959

Yet another classic sword-and-sandal epic with a grandiose scene free from any blue screen special effects. The chariot race of Ben-Hur starring Charlton Heston at the reigns is still a jaw-dropping moment some 66 years after it was released. Here we see real settings, costumes, horses and chariots racing around a massive outdoor track stadium with it's impressive central spina of statues. Then of course there is the drama that unfolds of the cheering crowd, the crashing bodies, and the fight between Heston and Jack Hawkins. The camera really puts the viewer behind the racing horses to help capture the speed at which they are moving. Another very unique feature of this epic scene is that it doesn't have much of a musical backdrop yet rather the constant audio of galloping horses. This is the climatic scene of the story, where Heston is finally able to get the better of Hawkins. 

22. I am Your Father (Empire Strikes Back) 1980

This was a pivotal scene in the original Star Wars Trilogy and probably one of the most shocking plot twists in movie history. It is in Empire Strikes Back where Luke and Darth Vader are having an intense lightsaber battle that the truth is revealed. Darth Vader tells Luke, "I am Your Father", and to search his feelings to accept the truth. Luke cries out in a state of denial but also acceptance. This was one of Mark Hamill's best emotional performances in the trilogy. But the writing and ultimate plot twist by George Lucas is what really made this such an iconic scene. 

21. Dufresne escapes Shawshank (Shawshank Redemption) 1994

It appears Tim Robbin's character of Andy Dufresne is considering suicide, until the guards realize his prison cell is empty. The terrible warden then begins shouting accusations before throwing a stone at a poster that reveals the secret. The scene than begins to explain how Andy had been planning this escape for nearly 20 years by chiseling thru the walls behind a poster. In it's most famous scene Andy crawls 500 yards thru a pipe of human waste to freedom, where he then takes his shirt off and welcomes the rain. Furthermore he was able to get back at the warden, by exposing his financial crimes to the press and also robbing him of his money. With a great musical score from Thomas Newman, this is just a wonderful happy ending for such a likeable character. 

20. Nina Transforms into the Black Swan (Black Swan) 2010

The entire movie Nina played by Natalie Portman is struggling to find her inner darkness to represent the role of the black swan. However the pressure of this role makes her begin to lose her mind, as she begins to experience hallucinations. At the final performance, she has a manic episode backstage where she stabs herself with a shard of glass. However she sets aside this pain and puts so much into the performance that she sees herself transforming into a black swan. She nails the performance to perfection, receives a standing ovation, and kisses her director. However when she returns to her dressing room she realizes she has stabbed herself and the pain begins to set in. She is able to finish the show but as she makes the final plunge on stage, the camera falls down with her portraying her death. The dramatic music of Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake make this an incredible thrilling scene that you just can't look away from.  

19. Luke Destroys the Death Star (Star Wars) 1977

This is the climatic scene of Star Wars: A New Hope where it appears the Rebel Alliance is facing oblivion. The sheer story, special effects, and filming make this such a thrilling moment in the film. After several failed attempts, Luke Skywalker must navigate a tight passage way to shoot into a core that will destroy the Death Star. If he does not succeed in this final run, the Death Star will destroy the Rebel's hidden base. To make the flight even more challenging he is chased by Darth Vader at top speeds. With the guidance of Obi Wan Kenobi, and a perfectly timed assist from Han Solo, Luke is able to destroy the Death Star just seconds before it releases it's death beam. This is a wonderful feel good moment where the bad guys are defeated and the good guys win the day (at least for now). 

18. Forrest Gump Breaks Out of Leg Braces (Forrest Gump) 1994

This one falls in the inspirational feel good-category when we see the younger Forrest Gump break free from his leg braces to escape the bullies. The scene begins when a group of bullies throw a rock at the younger Forrest Gump. His friend Jenny then tells him to run away, which doesn't seem fair given his leg braces. However the key moment is then caught in slow motion, focusing on the young kids legs as the metal braces shatter from his legs. He then begins to really open up in longer strides as the music tempo picks up. Tom Hanks narrates the scene as it unfolds recounting his youthful days when he could run like the wind. It's a very beautiful moment carried by the uplifting musical score of Alan Silvestri.  

17. Ride of the Valkyries (Apocalypse Now) 1979

One of the best Vietnam movies also has one of the best cinematic epic war scenes. Colonel Bill Kilgore played by Robert DuVall coolly rocks his aviator sunglasses as he leads a helicopter attack on a Vietnamese village. As the 20-some American choppers charge towards the island coast, the music of Richard Wagner's Ride of the Valkyries blares over the scene. The choppers begin bombarding the island with rockets and bullet fire as the poor Vietnamese take cover. The scene vividly captures the terrible atrocities of war from both ends. 

16. The Final Task (Pan's Labyrinth) 2006

This movie has a rather grim and bleak tone to it and still so beautifully filmed by Guillermo del Toro. The final scene always chokes me up, as the poor young Ofelia is shot dead by the wicked Spanish Captain. It is open to interpretation as it appears she has passed a test to join her parents in a magical fantasy world. For me this is no doubt a representation of heaven (yet one of several beautiful examples of that afterlife transistion). And although she left the cruel reality behind, she saved her brother and defeated the evil Captain before departing. The beautiful musical lullaby by Javier Navarrete makes this such an emotional scene. It's sad but also a happy ending at the same time. 

15. Schindler's Emotional Break Down (Schindler's list) 1993

This is such a powerful and emotional closing scene from Spielberg with incredible acting from Liam Neeson. After Oscar Schindler closes down his phony metal factory he is escorted back to his car by the many Jews that he saved. This includes his accountant played by Ben Kingsley, who offers him a ring as a gift for what he has done. At that point Schindler breaks down in emotion, realizing he could and should have done more to save more Jews. Kingsley tells him he saved hundreds with his phony operation and should not feel ashamed. The musical theme by Itzhak Perlman plays throughout Neeson's incredible performance to truly enhance this sad tragedy that was the Holocaust. 

14. Merry Christmas! (It's a Wonderful Life) 1946

I always get a kick that this movie is considered a Christmas movie, since it only has about five minutes of Christmas in it at the grand finale. George Bailey played by James Stewart has hit financial rock bottom and considers suicide before an angel intervenes. The angel is able to convince Bailey, of all the people he has influenced and how truly wonderful his life has been. When Bailey realizes he is not dead, he runs thru the snowy streets in total jubilation shouting Merry Christmas to everyone in town. He then enters his home to embrace his family, and the jubilation gets even better when the townspeople help contribute to his financial situation. Everyone in the house then sings Hark the Herald Angels Sing, and the daughter tells her father that whenever a bell rings an angel gets their wings. It's such an incredible happy feel-good moment, one of the best endings in movie history. 

13. D-Day Normandy Invasion (Saving Private Ryan) 1998

The opening sequence of Saving Private Ryan really kicks the movie off with a bang, as it gives a 20 minute depiction of the D-Day Battle of Normandy. Spielberg really creates some raw and graphic imagery here, as he puts the camera in the midst of all the action. Tom Hanks also gives off one of his finest performances as the Captain Miller leading his squad. The sheer scale of the scene is quite impressive as the landings unfold, hundreds of soldiers begin storming the beach. They are welcomed by an intense shower of gunfire and explosions. The fear and gore displayed in this scene truly establish the reality of this horrifying battle where thousands died. It's a scene you can't take your eyes away from with great acting, filming, and the musical score of John Williams. 

12. Rose's Death (Titanic) 1997

Here is yet another example of the beautiful film transition into the heavenly afterlife. I just love when the elder Rose passes away, travels thru the deep sea, and arrives to the Titanic as her younger self. She is then welcomed into the lobby by all those who died on the Titanic which of course includes her lover (played by Leonardo DiCaprio). She is so happy to see all these wonderful people united together, and this is no doubt her version of heaven. The scene is even multiplied by the beautiful music of James Horner's Hymn to the Sea. It's the ultimate feel good moment after an epic movie by James Cameron. 

11. Andy Dufresne plays Mozart over PA (Shawshank Redemption) 1994

Dufresne finally get's the funding for his library and receives a big shipment of books and albums. In a rather spontaneous moment of rebellion, he decides to play a record of Mozart's Marriage of Figaro over the PA system. The song is a beautiful operatic duet that completely entrances everyone at the prison yard. The filming does an incredible job to slowly capture the prisoners' state of wonder as they look up at the speakers. Morgan Freeman explains the event as it unfolds as if a songbird had flew in to the prison to make everyone feel free. Dufresne even goes a step further in his state of bliss, to ignore the warden's demands of turning the music off, by rather turning the music up. The scene of course comes to an abrupt end at last, but Dufresne achieved his mission of bringing hope to Shawshank if only for a couple minutes. 

10. Entering the Copacabana (Goodfellas) 1990

One of my favorite scenes from Martin Scorsese Goodfellas is when Ray Liotta escorts his date played by Lorraine Bracco thru the backdoor of the Copacabana. The filming uses a steadi-cam technique where the camera man follows the couple thru a very well choreographed scene. The couple enters thru the kitchen where Ray makes jokes with the staff and hands 20 dollar bills to the doormen. He eventually makes his way to the restaurant host, where he is able to skip the line and is escorted to the front of the stage. As the couple sits at their table, Lorraine is very impressed with her date and asks him what he does. It's just masterful cinematography played to the catchy 1960s song, Then He Kissed Me by the Crystals. 

9. You Shall not Pass (Fellowship of the Ring) 2001

There are so many artistic scenes from the Lord of the Rings trilogy, I could probably write a separate post just on that. But for now there are 3 from the movie series that stand out above the rest for me. The first one on this list occurs in the Fellowship of the Ring. The Fellowship is on the fun from the goblin army in the mines of Moria as well as the terrible beast known as the Balrog. It is here at the Bridge of Khazad-Dum that Gandalf makes his heroic stand. The special effects alone are amazing, depicting this magical devilish beast of fire and brimstone, known as a Balrog who carries a whip. Gandalf holds his staff at the Balrog as it shines a white light and he shouts "You Shall not Pass". At this point a force field stops the Balrog from advancing and the bridge collapses. The Balrog begins to fall down into the abyss and it appears it is defeated, until he cracks his whip one last time. The whip grabs on to Gandalf's foot, he clings to the cliff for one moment, before saying farewell to his friends, and falling down. At this point the musical score of Howard Shore shifts to a very sad melody of beautiful angelic vocals while the rest of the fellowship leave the mine and mourn the loss of Gandalf. 

8. Singing in the Rain (Singing in the Rain)

Here is a masterclass of musical performance, singing, and dancing from Gene Kelly. However what is equally impressive is the set design of a shopping plaza at night getting rained upon. Gene Kelly is in a state of love and can't help himself but sing and dance with joy despite the terrible weather occurring. He carelessly swings his umbrella as he strolls thru the pouring rain with a smile on his face. The other pedestrians watch him with utter shock as he acts a fool tapdancing in the puddles of water. He eventually brings his frolic to an end, when he runs into a police officer. He innocently tells the officer he's just singing and dancing in the rain, before he kindly hands his umbrella off to another pedestrian. It's a wonderful scene of utter happiness that I could just watch over again and again. 

7. The Battlefield Run (1917)

This is the penultimate moment that has been brewing the entire story with such vivid and intense filming by Sam Mendes. The WWI British soldier played by George MacKay must deliver a crucial message to the general to stop the attack. However he arrives at the onset of the charge, and must run out in no-mans land to move along the trenchline. As he runs he must dodge oncoming German artillery as well as charging British soldiers. The camera then zooms out to capture the epic scale of this moment amidst a terrible WWI battle. The acting by George MacKay, the directing of Mendes, and the dramatic music of Thomas Newman make this one of the greatest scenes in movie history. 

 

6. Salieri Describes Mozart's Music (Amadeus) 1984

The older Salieri played by F. Murray Abraham is describing the first time he met Mozart to a priest. Mozart had just given a performance for the arch-duke, and Salieri walks over to glimpse at Mozart's sheet music. At this point Salieri gives a poetic explanation of each detail of Mozart's Serenade for the Winds, 3rd Movement. While the beautiful song of Mozart is probably the defining piece of the scene, the screenplay and passionate acting of F. Murray Abraham is also what makes it even more special (and well deserving of the Oscar he won for the performance). It's without question my favorite scene from one of my favorite movies.  

 

5. The Car Scene (Children of Men) 2006

This scene is incredible for several reasons. It was a total plot-twist in the story, but was also filmed in one very long shot. The scene began as a friendly drive of reacquainted lovers (played by Julianne Moore and Clive Owen) as they listen to music and play games in the car. Then out of nowhere their car is attacked by a group of insurgents, one of which is riding a motorbike with a gun. The passenger on the motorbike shoots at Julian thru the front shield of the car, which causes a blast of blood (that spurts on the camera). Theo is then able to knock the motorbike down with his door, which causes the bike to flip over the front of the car. As the car turns around, the passengers are frantic with emotion, as the windshield bursts into shattered pieces. As the police quickly chase down the car, Chiwetel Ejiofor gets out of the driver seat and shoots the officers dead on the spot. Everyone in the car is shocked at what happened, just as the audience were when they first saw this scene. In incredible moment from director Alfonso Cuaron for it's story twist but also it's groundbreaking film technique. 

4. The Sunrise at Helms Deep (The Two Towers) 2002

Facing certain oblivion at the Battle of Helms Deep, Aragon convinces King Theoden to make one final heroic stance at the gates. Gimli blows the horn of Rohan, while Theoden leads a charge down the ramp for death and glory. However at this point Aragon looks to the east and sees Gandalf the White standing atop a mountain with the rising sun at his back. Gandalf then speaks to Eomer that his king stands alone, of which Eomer then calls upon his army of Rohirrim. A glorious charge then ensues down the mountainside led by Gandalf, filmed in slow motion. The Uruk-Hai rush to meet this charge, but as the Rohirrim arrive, the sun blinds the enemy army, making for a crushing assault. All this occurs to the most beautiful musical composition by Howard Shore, Forth Eorlingas, once again with angelic vocals. It's an inspiring turning point in the story, where it appears the good guys are defeated, until one heroic moment completely changes the tide of events.

3. Miracle Cease Fire (Children of Men) 2006

Although this is not one of the several incredible long take shots in the film, it's without question the most climatic and artistic from Alfonso Cuaron. In the midst of the final battle, Kee has just given birth to the first baby in nearly 20 years. The refugees, insurgents, and British military are all shocked at this miracle. The fighting comes to a complete halt as everyone freezes to look upon the baby. Theo and Kee are able to walk out of the building as if they were Mary and Joseph carrying the baby Jesus. The scene has a very religious implication to it, with a angelic chorus playing in the backdrop. It always hits a powerful emotion to think that something so beautiful could bring an end to war, even if it is momentary. In this case a rocket blast then comes firing from the building to bring this beautiful moment to an abrupt end and return us all back to the harsh reality. It's one of the most beautiful scenes that always chokes me up. 

2. The Ride of the Rohirrim (The Return of the King) 2003

This is my favorite scene in the Lord of the Rings trilogy that always chokes me up with such a blissful sensation. It appears yet again that the good guys are facing defeat as Gandalf's staff is obliterated by the evil witch king. Then suddenly a horn is heard far from Minis Tirith amidst the battlefields of Pelennor. The camera shows an incredible encouraging scene of the Rohirrim arriving at the rear of the orc army, with thousands of Rohan cavalry led by King Theoden. The music changes to an uplifting score, as King Theoden begins rallying his army with a riveting speech to ride into the world's end. At this point the charge begins, once again in slow motion as the musical score continues with it's theme of Rohan. It's such a beautiful moment of courage and honor, facing certain death against impossible odds. 

1. Now We are Free (Gladiator) 2000

There are quite a few afterlife transitions on the list, but this one is without question my favorite. It is my favorite moment of the film Gladiator and a big reason why this is my all time favorite movie. Maximus played by Russell Crowe has just achieved his vengeance against the evil emperor Commodus played by Joaquin Phoenix. The music of Lisa Gerrard and Hans Zimmer's Now we are Free sets the emotional tone. Maximus slowly begins to fade into the afterlife feeling his hands on the wheat fields that lead to his family in Elysium. But he is then awakened back to reality and must give the final orders to free the prisoners and to reinstate Rome to a republic. He then falls to the floor and bids Lucilla farewell before crossing over. He then floats into his Elysium where his wife and child are waiting for him. His child runs to him in the backdrop of the rolling wheat fields. His body is then carried away from the coliseum in a glorious ending to the beautiful music of Now we are Free.